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C8*  Historical  ISMt 


THE  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 
OF  THE  APOSTLES 


THE  HISTORICAL  BIBLE 

By  CHARLES  FOSTER  £eNT,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D. 
Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in  Yale  University 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  VOLUMES: 

L  The  Heroes  and  Crises  of  Early  Hebrew  His- 
tory. From  the  Creation  to  the  Death  of 
Moses.    {Ready.) 

IL  The  Founders  and  Rulers  of  United  Israel. 
From  the  Death  of  Moses  to  the  Division 
of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom.    {Ready.) 

III.  The  Kings  and  Prophets  of  Israel  and  Judah. 

From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom  to  the 
Babylonian  Exile.    {Ready.) 

IV.  The  Makers  and  Teachers  of  Judaism.   From 

the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Death  of 
Herod  the  Great.    {Ready.) 

V.  The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Jesus.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Earliest  Records.      (Ready.) 

VI.  The  Work  and  Teachings  of  the  Apostles. 
From  the  Death  of  Jesus  to  the  End  of 
the  First  Century. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 

AND  THE 

Scenes  of  Paul's  Work 


C.F.Kew*-, 


l(o    APR  17  191! 


€&e  historical  TBfb\»[(e>   APR  17  191G 

THE  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 
OF  THE  APOSTLES 


CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D. 

WOOLSEY   PROFESSOR   OF   BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   IN   YALE   UNIVERSITY 


WITH  MAP  AND  CHART 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

NEW  YORK         CHICAGO         BOSTON 


Copyright,  1916,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


PREFACE 

The  Apostolic  Age  is  the  most  complex  period  of  biblical  history. 
Until  the  death  of  Jesus  the  interest  of  the  biblical  student  is  focused 
on  the  Hebrew  race,  but  after  that  great  turning-point  in  human  his- 
tory it  suddenly  becomes  world-wide.  Rome  soon  takes  the  place  of 
Jerusalem  as  the  centre  of  Christianity,  and  its  historical  background 
is  the  great  Grseco-Roman  world.  It  is  during  the  Apostolic  Age 
that  the  relatively  narrow  current  of  Jewish  thought  mingles  with 
those  which  flow  from  the  ancient  East,  from  cultured  Hellas,  and  from 
Rome  itself.  The  mingling  of  these  currents  explains  the  resulting 
complexity  of  apostolic  life  and  thought.  The  New  Testament  writ- 
ings vividly  reflect  this  mingling  of  civilizations  and  ideas.  As  they 
stand  these  books  also  lack  chronological  arrangement.  To  most 
New  Testament  readers  the  latter  part  of  the  New  Testament  is  a 
labyrinth.  It  is  full  of  immortal  truths  and  richly  suggestive  of  the 
heroism  and  hopes  of  the  early  Christians;  but,  aside  from  the  book 
of  Acts,  the  New  Testament  writings  in  their  present  order  fail  to  make 
clear  the  unity  of  the  mighty,  onward,  first-century  movement  of 
which  they  are  practically  the  only  record.  Therefore  a  chronological 
synthesis  of  the  material  in  the  epistles  and  Acts  is  an  indispensable 
prerequisite  for  the  intelligent  study  of  apostolic  Christianity. 

The  cumulative  testimony  of  an  ever-increasing  body  of  biblical 
students  confirms  the  conclusion  that  the  most  fruitful,  in  fact,  the 
only  satisfactory  way  to  study  biblical  history  and  the  complex  litera- 
ture contained  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  is  by  means  of  the 
source-method.  When  the  more  important  passages  of  this  ancient 
literature  are  singled  out  and  arranged  according  to  the  scientific 
methods  of  classification,  the  biblical  writers  tell  their  own  story  and 
the  modern  student  gains  for  the  first  time  a  clear  and  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  abounding  life  and  the  vital  principles  recorded  in 
the  Bible.  In  endeavoring  to  lay  the  foundations  for  this  study,  I 
have  been  constantly  helped  and  inspired,  not  only  by  work  in  the 
college  classroom,  but  also  by  scores  and  hundreds  of  letters  from  men 
and  women  in  various  professions  and  activities  who  have  been  able 


PREFACE 

to  speak  from  their  practical  experience  in  the  larger  laboratory  of 
life.  To  endeavor  to  lay  before  them  in  each  succeeding  period  those 
portions  of  the  Bible  that  are  the  most  significant  and  to  leave  out 
none  that  are  of  primary  importance  has  been  one  of  the  constant  aims 
of  this  series.  In  the  present  volume  the  task  has  been  especially  dif- 
ficult, yet  inspiring  because  of  the  richness  of  the  material.  In  Paul's 
epistles  the  historian  also  possesses  contemporary  records  which  are 
of  priceless  value;  but  even  here  frequent  omissions  bring  out  in  clearer 
relief  the  remaining  passages  which  present  the  logical  thought  and  the 
essential  teachings  of  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  Following 
the  example  of  modern  translators  like  Moffatt  and  Weymouth,  I 
have  broken  up  many  of  Paul's  cumbersome  and  involved  sentences 
into  smaller  and  more  intelligible  units.  By  so  doing  the  modern 
reader  is  enabled  to  gain  a  truer  appreciation,  not  only  of  the  apos- 
tle's thought  but  also  of  his  vigorous  literary  style. 

The  large  debt  which  I  owe  to  the  writers  who  have  pioneered  this 
many-sided  field  is  suggested  in  the  Appendix.  To  my  former  student, 
Professor  Case,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  I  feel  under  especial 
obligation  for  his  illuminating  survey  of  the  religious  background  of 
the  Apostolic  Age  in  his  Evolution  of  Christianity.  The  study  of  each 
succeeding  period  of  biblical  history  has  also  brought  into  increasing 
prominence  the  lofty  yet  practical  social  idealism  of  the  men  who  in- 
spired and  wrote  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  subject  is  too 
large  and  to  vital  to  be  presented  only  fragmentarily.  Its  com- 
prehensive treatment  is,  therefore,  reserved  for  a  separate  volume  on 
"The  Social  Teachings  of  the  Prophets  and  Jesus." 

C.  F.  K. 
Yale  University,' 

January,  1916. 


VI 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  RECORDS  AND  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  APOSTOLIC 

AGE 

PAG] 

I.    The  Records  of  the  Work  and  Teachings  of  the  Apos- 
tles         3 

I.  The  Significance  of  the  Apostolic  Age. — II.  The  New 
Testament  Letters  and  Epistles. — III.  The  Aim  of  the  Book 
of  Acts. — IV.  Its  Authorship  and  Date. — V.  The  Early 
Sources  Quoted  in  Acts  li-153B. — VI.  Later  Traditions  in 
iL-1535. — vil.  The  Journal  of  Travel. 

II.    The  Historical  and   Religious  Background  of  the 

Apostolic  Age i 

I.  The  Rulers  of  Rome. — II.  What"  Rome  Did  for  Chris- 
tianity.— III.  Contemporary  Palestinian  Judaism. — IV.  The 
Judaism  of  the  Dispersion. — V.  The  Greek  Philosophies. 
— VI.  The  Emperor- Worship. — VII.  The  Mystery-Relig- 
ions.— VIII.  The  Religious  and  Social  Needs  of  the  Masses 
in  the  Roman  Empire. 


PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY  IN  PALESTINE  AND  SYRIA 

§  CXLVI.    The  Origin  of  the  Jerusalem  Christian  Com- 
munity       21 

ActS    113-16.  20-25?    21-  2-  4-  6a-  l2"41. 

I.  The  Return  of  the  Disciples  to  Jerusalem. — II.  The 
Choice  of  a  Successor  to  Judas. — III.  The  Story  of  the  Day 
of  Pentecost. — IV.  The  Coming  of  the  Spirit. — V.  Peter's 
Memorable  Sermon. — VI.  The  Faith  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian Believers. 

§  CXLVII.    The   Life   of  the  Primitive   Christian   Com- 
munity       34 

Acts  2"-4".  2i-«6.  29-",  51-16. 

I.  The  Historical  Record. — II.  The  Healing  of  the  Lame 
Beggar. — III.  Peter's  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament 
Prophecies. — IV.  His  Defense  before  Jesus'  Murderers. — 
V.  The  Effect  of  the  Release  of  Peter  and  John  upon  the 
Christian  Community. — VI  The  Communistic  Tendencies 
of  the  Believers. — VII.  The  Story  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira. 
— VIII.  The  Religious  Life  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians. 

vii 


CONTENTS 


§  CXLVIII.    The  Work  and  Death  op  Stephen 45 

Acts  6»-7*.  «b-«»,  8*. 

I.  The  Story  of  Stephen's  Martyrdom. — II.  The  Appointment 
of  the  Seven. — III .  Stephen's  Discussions  with  the  Hellenistic 
Jews. — IV.  The  Logic  of  Stephen's  Speech. — V.  His  Death. 

§  CXLIX.    The    Expansion    op    Christianity    after    the 

Death  of  Stephen 54 

Acts  8lb.  <-49,  li".  "• M- 86b.  121-w. 

I.  The  Far-Reaching  Effects  of  Stephen's  Martyrdom. — EL 
The  Samaritan  Field. — III.  The  Results  of  Philip's  Preach- 
ing in  Samaria. — IV.  His  Conversation  with  the  Ethiopian 
Eunuch. — V.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  to  Antioch. — VI. 
The  Persecution  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians  by  Herod 
Agrippa  I. — VII.  Peter's  Changed  Attitude  Toward  the 
Gentiles. — VIII.  The  Limitations  and  Significance  of  Early 
.  Palestinian  Christianity. 


PAUL'S  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 
§  CL.    Paul's  Early  Training  and  Conversion 68 

Acts  223,  Gal.  1«.  ",  Acts  269-i»,  Gal.  1"-",  Acts  26*>a,  II 
Cor.  11«.  «  Gal.  1«". 

I.  Paul's  Inheritance. — II.  His  Personality. — III.  His  Early 
Environment  at  Tarsus. — IV.  His  Training  at  Jerusalem. — 
V.  His  Zeal  as  a  Persecutor. — VI.  The  Four  Accounts  of  His 
Conversion. — VII.  His  Transforming  Psychological  Experi- 
ence.— VIII.  His  First  Fifteen  Years  of  Missionary  Activity. 

§  CLI.    Paul's  First  Missionary  Campaign 80 

Acts  12*.  *   ll"-*>,  12*,  13J-1428. 

I.  Paul's  Work  at  Antioch. — II.  The  Sending  Forth  of  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul. — III.  Their  Work  in  Cyprus. — IV.  The 
Mission  Field  in  Southern  Asia  Minor. — V.  At  Galatian 
Antioch. — VI.  The  Apostles*  Work  at  Iconium.and  Lystra. 

§  CLII.    The  Breaking  of  Jewish  Bonds 91 

Gal.  2i-«,  Acts  151* 

I.  The  Burning  Problem  in  the  Christian  Church. — II.  The 
Accounts  of  the  Way  in  Which  It  Was  Solved. — III.  Paul's 
Interview  with  the  "Pillars"  at  Jerusalem. — IV.  Problems 
Arising  from  the  Association  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians.— V.  Paul's  Controversy  with  Peter. — VI.  The  Sig- 
nificance of  the  Breaking  of  Jewish  Bonds. 

§CLIII.    Paul's  Second  Visit  and  Later  Letter  to  the 

Churches  of  Galatia 100 

Acts  15«-16»,  Gal.  li-»,  317-  *-»,  4*-",  5*-«.  13-6". 

I.  Date  and  Aim  of  Paul's  Second  Missionary  Campaign. 

— II.  Revisiting  the  Galatian  Churches. — III.  The  Occasion 

viii 


CONTENTS 


of  Paul's  Letter  to  the  Galatians. — IV.  The  Literary  Struc- 
ture and  Contents  of  Galatians. — V.  Paul's  Interpretation  of 
the  Significance  of  the  Jewish  Law  and  of  the  Work  of  Jesus. 
— VI.  The  Responsibilities  of  Spiritual  Liberty. 


§  CLIV.    Paul's  Missionary  Work  in  Macedonia 

Acts  166-17". 

I.  Paul's  Quest  of  a  New  Mission  Field. — II.  His  Vision  at 
Troas. — III  His  Work  at  Philippi. — IV.  The  Founding  of 
the  Church  at  Thessalonica. — V.  Paul's  Work  at  Bercea. — 
VI.  The  Results  of  His  Work  in  Macedonia. 


109 


§  CLV.    Paul's  Letters  to  the  Christians  at  Thessalonica 

I  Thess.  li-io,  21-55.  I2-28,  II  Thess.  li-«,  2*-\  3. 
I.  The  General  Structure  of  Paul's  Letters. — II.  Their 
Literary  Characteristics. — III.  The  Occasion  of  His  First 
Letter  to  the  Thessalonians. — IV.  Its  Contents. — V.  The 
Contents  and  Authenticity  of  II  Thessalonians. — VI.  Paul's 
Aim  in  II  Thessalonians. 


119 


§  CLVI.    Paul's  Work  at  Athens  and  Corinth 132 

Acts  lTlfi-lSlSa. 

I.  The  Athens  of  Paul's  Day. — II.  His  Attitude  Toward  Its 
Intellectual  and  Religious  Life. — III.  His  Address  to  the 
Athenian  Crowd. — IV.  His  Skill  as  an  Orator. — V.  His 
Problems  and  Methods  at  Corinth. — VI.  The  Results  of 
His  Work  in  Corinth. 


§CLVTI.    Paul's    Correspondence    with   the    Corinthian 

Church 142 

I  Cor.  II"6'  N>-17a,  21-29t  21'5-  H"18  31"7.  »-".  ls.  17 •  M-M,  48_5«a,  9-13 
1512-28*,    35-38,    42-44,    49-58^     161-7.    10-14      U     Cor.     H)!"6,     Ill"6      121*«  I6, 

132-5,  li-4>  23,  2i-10a    6ii-13,  72"4    81"6,  91-  2>  i°-i5. 
I.  Conditions  in  the  Church  at  Corinth  that  Called  Forth 
Paul's    Letters. — II.  His    First    Letter   to   the    Corinthian 
Christians. — III.  His  Second  Letter  to  the  Corinthians. — 

IV.  His  Third  Letter  to  the  Corinthians. — V.  His  Fourth 
Letter  to  the  Corinthians. 

§  CLVIII.    Paul's  Principles  of  Christian  Living 156 

I  Cor.  6,  710-24,  81-4.  7->.  "•  ",  913-",  10x2'  i3-  si-33,  I212-31, 131-145.  B. 

18,  19,  26-33a,   37 -40^ 

I.  Paul's  Teaching  Regarding  the  Christian's  Duty  in  His 
Economic  Relations. — II.  His  Advice  Regarding  Sex  Ques- 
tions and  Divorce. — III.  His  Practical  Application  of  Jesus' 
Law  of  Love. — IV.  "The  Body  of  Christ." — V.  Paul's  Im- 
mortal Hymn  in  Praise  of  Love. 

§  CLIX.    Paul's  Ministry  at  Ephesus 168 

Acts  18i9-2038, 

I.  Paul's  Journey  to  Syria. — II.  The  Political  and  Religious 
Importance  of  Ephesus. — III.  Conditions  that  Confronted 
Paul  at  Ephesus. — IV.  His  Method  of  Work  at  Ephesus. — 

V.  His  Conflict  with  the  Pagan  Cults. — VI.  The  Results  of 
His  Work  at  Ephesus. 

ix 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

§  CLX.    Paul's  Interpretation  of  Jesus'  Saving  Work 179 

Romans  1'.  5-m,  2«-«,  3s-12.  2°-3i,  413-17b,  51-",  8,  ll»-36. 
I.  Date  and  Aim  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans. — II.  Its 
Structure. — III.  Paul's  Estimate  of  the  Jewish  Law. — IV. 
The  Influences  which  Shaped  His  Conception  of  Jesus. — 
V.  His  Doctrine  of  Salvation  through  Faith  in  Christ. 

§  CLXI.    Paul's  Social  Teachings 190 

Romans  12i-14i8,  151-9-  »»>-» 

I.  The  Two  Sides  of  Paul's  Personality  and  Teaching. — 

II.  His  Reassertion  of  Jesus'  Social  Teachings. — III.  His 
Restatement  of  Jesus'  Social  Ideal. — IV.  The  Christian's 
Responsibility  as  a  Member  of  Society. — V.  His  Duties  of 
Toleration  and  Consideration  for  Others. — VI.  His  Obliga- 
tion to  Men  of  All  Races. 

§  CLXII.    Paul's  Last  Journey  to  Jerusalem 200 

Acts  211-",  2221-2321».  22-25a.  31-35. 

I.  The  Record  of  Paul's  Journey  to  Jerusalem  and  Rome. — 

II.  His  Reasons  for  Revisiting  Jerusalem. — III.  His  Recep- 
tion at  Jerusalem. — IV.  The  Jewish  Attack. — V.  The  Re- 
sults of  Paul's  Visit  to  Jerusalem. 

§  CLXILL    The  Ambassador  in  Bonds 210 

Acts  241-251*.  23,  261-4-  22-2816.  3°. «. 

I.  Paul's  Imprisonment  under  Felix. — II.  The  Date  of  the 
Procuratorships  of  Felix  and  Festus. — III.  Paul's  Reasons 
for  Appealing  to  Caesar. — IV.  The  Story  of  His  Shipwreck. 
— V.  His  Journey  to  Rome. — VI.  The  End  of  the  Race. 

§  CLXIV.    The  Last  Letters  of  the  Aged  Prisoner 223 

Philemon,  Col.  I1-8-  M-29,  21-3-  «-i2,  31. 2.  s-2',  4*-9.  i«.  is,  Eph.  li-«, 
2n-i8t  44-6.  n-16,  31,  32>  51,  2>  610-2^  Phil.  11-",  i»-26,  4«-2o. 

I.  Paul's  Last  Letters. — II.  The  Occasion  of  His  Letter  to 
Philemon. — III.  The  Purpose  and  Thought  of  His  Epistle 
to  the  Colossians. — IV.  The  Identity  of  the  So-called  "Epis- 
tle to  the  Ephesians." — V.  Paul's  Love-Letter  to  the  Phi- 
lippians. — VI.  His  Contributions  to  Christianity. 


CHRISTIANITY  DURING  THE  SECOND  HALF  OF  THE 
FIRST  CENTURY 

§  CLXV.    The  Message  of  Hope  and  Inspiration  in  I  Peter    238 
I  Peter  li-».  «.  23,  21-3.  »-*>,  3i-is,  4i-«,  7-19,  5. 
I.  The  Later  Years  of  the  Apostle  Peter. — II.  His  Martyr- 
dom.— III.  The  Growth  of  the  Western  Church. — IV.  The 
Persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Domitian. — V.  The  Aim 
and  Contents  of  I  Peter. — VI.  Its  Authorship  and  Date. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

§  CLXVI.    The  Early  Christian  Sermon  in  Hebrews 250 

Heb.  I1-5-  1<M2,  210.  "•  17>  18,  31-7,  414-M,  101*-24' 32-36,  ll1*10'  w*i*i  *»- 
2»,  3i-4o>  12,  138"15.  20>  21. 

I.  The   Literary  Form   of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. — 

II.  Its  Authorship  and  History. — III.  The  Aim  of  the  Ser- 
mon in  Hebrews. — IV.  Its  Theme  and  the  Development  of 
Its  Thought. — V.  Its  Charm  and  Power. 

§  CLXVII.    The  Visions  of  the  Ultimate  Victory  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Book  of  Revelation 262 

Rev.  I1-8-  10- lla,  2la-6a-  7-13-  1S-  19«  2S,  31_4>  7-  8-  10>  14"16-  19-22,  41-*- 

8b     5*6o,  11-14     79,  10,    13,    14-17,   146-13,    JQll-ie,    19-21a,    2011"15,  211"5.' 22"27, 

221-5.  10-17.  " 

I.  The  Aim  of  the  Book  of  Revelation. — II.  Its  Theme  and 
Literary  Character. — III.  Its  Authorship  and  Date. — IV. 
Its  Contents  and  Sources. — V.  Its  Interpretation. 

§  CLXVIII.    The   Christian   Wisdom   of   the   Epistle   of 

James 277 

James  l*-2i»,  3J-43,  5. 

I.  The  Literary  Form  of  the  Epistle  of  James. — II.  Its  Aim. 
— III.  Its  Authorship  and  Date. — IV.  Its  Contributions  to 
Developing  Christianity. — V.  Its  Democracy. 

§  CLXIX.    The  Rule   of  Love  in  the  Early  Christian 

Church 287 

I  John  I1-213.  "-IT,  31-3,  9-11.  i3-i8t  47-21,  Apology  of  Aristides, 
15,  16. 

I.  The  Aim  and  Thought  of  I  John. — II.  Its  Authorship  and 
Date. — III.  The  Personality  Back  of  the  Johannine  Writ- 
ings.— IV.  The  Life  of  the  Early  Christians. — V.  The  Es- 
sence of  Christianity. 

APPENDIX    I.    A  Practical  Reference  Library 301 

II.    General    Questions    and    Subjects    for 

Special  Research 303 


MAP  AND  CHART 

The  Main  Highways  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  Scenes 

of  Paul's  Work Frontispiece 

Chronology  of  the  Apostolic  Age To  face  page  21 


XI 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  RECORDS  AND  BACKGROUND  OF 
THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE 

I 

THE  RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 
OF  THE  APOSTLES 

I.  The  Significance  of  the  Apostolic  Age.  The  Apostolic  Age 
began  with  the  death  of  Jesus  in  29  or  30  a.d.  and  ended  about  the  close 
of  the  first  Christian  century.  This  brief  three-quarters  of  a  century  is 
significant  primarily  because  it  represented  the  practical  application, 
the  testing,  and  the  crystallizing  of  the  principles  of  faith  and  life  which 
Jesus  had  set  forth.  Christianity  then  came  into  close  contact  and 
competition  with  many  rival  religions,  such  as  the  Roman  emperor- 
worship,  Greek  Cynicism,  Epicureanism,  Stoicism,  Judaism,  many 
Egyptian  and  oriental  cults,  and,  above  all,  with  the  popular  mystery- 
religions.  In  this  infinitely  complex  environment  Christianity  ceased 
to  be  based  on  certain  simple  principles  proclaimed  by  Jesus  and  il- 
lustrated by  his  life  and  acts;  it  gradually  developed  an  elaborate 
system  of  doctrines,  rules,  and  institutions.  This  period  marked  the 
beginning  of  that  creed-making  era  which  culminated  in  325  a.d.  in 
the  formulation  and  acceptance  by  the  Western  Church  of  the  Nicene 
Creed.  It  also  witnessed  the  spread  of  Christianity  from  the  little 
community  at  Jerusalem  to  Rome  and  to  the  widest  bounds  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  It  saw  the  growth  of  a  chain  of  Christian  churches 
reaching  from  Babylon  in  the  East  to  Spain  in  the  West  and  from  the 
Black  Sea  in  the  North  to  the  heart  of  Africa  in  the  South. 

The  vital  questions  presented  by  the  period  are  historical  and  doc- 
trinal. How  far  was  the  faith  of  Christianity  based  on  the  teachings 
of  Jesus  ?  How  far  did  it  come  from  the  active  mind  of  Paul  ?  How 
far  was  it  a  composite  of  Jewish,  Greek,  and  oriental  ideas?    Fortu- 

1 


RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

nately,  in  answering  these  complex  yet  fundamental  questions,  we  have 
as  a  basis  of  comparison  the  older  records  of  Jesus'  work  and  teachings. 
We  can  focus  the  search-light  of  these  teachings  upon  those  of  Paul 
and  of  the  other  New  Testament  writers,  even  as  the  Great  Teacher 
turned  them  upon  those  of  the  older  prophets,  priests,  and  sages. 
The  historical  study  of  the  literature  of  the  Apostolic  Age  gives  us  also 
a  fresh  vision  of  Jesus.  Hitherto  the  Christian  church  has  seen  him 
largely  through  the  medium  of  Paul's  theology;  but  now  we  are  be- 
ginning to  distinguish  in  Paul  three  distinct  elements :  (1)  The  Pharisee 
and  devoted  student  of  the  Jewish  law;  (2)  The  Roman  citizen  and 
heir  to  many  of  the  complex  religious  ideas  current  in  western  Asia . 
during  the  first  Christian  century;  (3)  Paul  the  mystic  and  the  devoted 
follower  of  Jesus  who  interpreted  the  teachings  of  his  Master  in  the 
light  of  his  own  rich  personal  experience.  With  a  clearer  knowledge 
of  the  influences  which  entered  into  Paul's  vision,  we  are  better  able 
to-day  to  interpret  what  he  actually  saw  and  thus  to  see  Jesus  anew 
through  the  eyes  of  the  earliest  New  Testament  writer. 

II.  The  New  Testament  Letters  and  Epistles.  Fortunately,  we 
are  not  dependent  upon  secondary  sources  for  our  knowledge  of  Paul. 
The  oldest  writings  in  the  New  Testament  come  directly  from  this 
heroic  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  and  furnish  contemporary  testimony  re- 
garding the  most  important  movements  of  the  first  quarter  century 
following  the  death  of  Jesus.  Paul's  letters  and  epistles  were  the 
spontaneous  outgrowth  of  his  work.  When  it  was  reported  to  him 
that  false  teachers  were  attempting  to  undermine  his  influence  with 
the  churches  which  he  had  established  in  Galatia,  with  hot  indignation 
and  earnest  zeal  he  sat  down  and  wrote  his  impassioned  letter  to  the 
Galatians.  Again,  when  he  was  unable  to  go  in  person  and  counsel  his 
disciples  in  the  newly  established  church  at  Thessalonica,  he  put  into 
his  letters  known  as  I  and  II  Thessalonians  the  words  which  he  would 
doubtless  have  spoken  could  he  have  visited  them.  Later,  in  his  ab- 
sence from  Corinth,  he  carried  on  an  active  correspondence  with  his 
fellow  Christians  there,  which  is  at  present  incorporated  in  I  and  II 
Corinthians.  When  he  found  that  he  could  not  go  on  directly  to  Rome, 
as  he  had  hoped,  he  embodied  in  a  more  general  epistle  the  essence  of 
his  theological  teaching,  and  added  a  practical  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity  to  the  every-day  problems  of  life.  Thus  arose 
the  New  Testament  book  known  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
Through  these  letters  and  epistles  of  Paul  it  is  possible  to  know  him 
almost  as  intimately  as  did  those  who  sat  under  his  direct  teaching. 

2 


NEW  TESTAMENT  LETTERS  AND  EPISTLES 

They  introduce  us  to  Paul  as  he  pleads  with  the  disciples  to  choose 
the  right,  or  as  he  pours  out  his  passionate  protestations  of  affection 
and  appreciation,  or  as  he  declares  his  faith  in  God  and  in  his  son, 
Jesus  Christ,  or  at  the  high  moments  of  his  thought  and  experience, 
as  when,  for  example,  he  sings  his  immortal  hymn  of  love.  Few 
characters  of  antiquity  are  revealed  more  clearly  than  is  that  of  Paul 
in  his  ten  or  twelve  original  epistles.  Even  in  pastoral  epistles  like 
Titus  and  I  and  II  Timothy  the  nucleus  is  undoubtedly  Pauline  and 
the  spirit  of  the  great  apostle  transfuses  them,  though  in  their  final 
form  they  probably  came  from  the  pens  of  later  disciples.  These  epis- 
tles also  give  valuable  incidental  information  regarding  the  details  of 
Paul's  work  and  of  conditions  in  the  Roman  world,  thus  richly  supple- 
menting and  at  several  points  correcting  the  more  systematic  record 
of  Acts.  In  these  epistles,  as  well  as  in  the  later  writings  associated 
with  the  names  of  Peter,  and  James,  and  John,  it  is  possible  to  trace 
clearly  the  growth  of  Christian  institutions  and  doctrines.  Epistles 
like  II  and  III  John  and  Philemon  contain  many  personal  touches 
which  reveal  the  spirit  and  life  of  the  early  Christians.  In  Hebrews 
we  listen  to  a  great  Christian  preacher,  setting  forth  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  as  they  were  taught  near  the  close  of  the  first  century. 
Thus  through  the  epistles  it  is  possible  to  view  from  many  different 
angles  the  early  growth  and  expansion  of  Christianity. 

III.  The  Aim  of  the  Book  of  Acts.  The  reference  in  the  preface 
of  the  book  of  Acts  to  "my  former  volume"  and  to  "Theophilus"  im- 
plies that  the  purpose  of  its  author  was  to  continue  the  narrative  of 
the  Third  Gospel  and  to  trace  the  triumphs  and  progress  of  the  Chris- 
tian church  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome.  A  closer  examination  of  Acts 
reveals  the  fact  that  its  aim  was  not  merely  historical  but  irenical, 
practical,  and  to  a  certain  extent  apologetic.  Its  author  evidently 
had  three  classes  of  readers  in  mind:  (1)  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus;  (2)  the  Jews  who  refused  to  accept  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah; and  (3)  the  Grseco-Roman  world.  His  practical  aim  therefore 
is  threefold :  First,  to  reconcile  the  differences  in  the  early  church  re- 
garding its  duty  to  Gentiles  and  to  show  how,  notwithstanding  the  op- 
position of  certain  narrow  Judaizers  in  its  ranks,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Spirit  of  God  and  through  the  heroism  and  persistency  of  the 
early  apostles,  and  especially  of  Paul,  it  had  swept  over  the  barriers 
of  Jewish  and  heathen  opposition,  and  finally  gained  a  firm  foothold  in 
the  capital  city  of  the  empire.  These  facts  are  presented  as  the  final, 
pragmatic  answer  to  the  objections  of  the  narrow  Judaistic  Christians. 

3 


RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

The  second  aim  is  to  demonstrate  that  Christianity  was  born  under 
the  shadow  of  the  temple  or  in  the  Jewish  synagogues,  and  that  not 
Christianity  but  Judaism  precipitated  the  bitter  hostility  between  the 
two  kindred  faiths.  The  third  aim  is  to  win  a  favorable  reception  for 
Christianity  at  Rome  and  from  the  Roman  officials  throughout  the 
empire.  To  that  end  especial  emphasis  is  placed  upon  Paul's  Roman 
citizenship  and  on  the  endeavor  to  show  that  his  persecutions  and  im- 
prisonments came  simply  as  the  result  of  malignant  Jewish  or  heathen 
attacks,  and  that  the  Roman  officials  with  practical  uniformity  defended 
rather  than  assailed  him.  This  aim  doubtless  explains  why  there  is 
no  mention  of  Paul's  flogging  by  the  Roman  lictors,  as  recorded  in  II 
Corinthians  ll25,  and  why  the  narrative  of  Acts  ends  abruptly,  saying 
nothing  about  Paul's  final  trial  and  execution.  The  all-embracing  aim 
was  to  show  how  the  spirit  and  presence  of  Jesus  continued  to  inspire 
and  direct  his  followers,  so  that  all  that  they  taught  and  accomplished 
was  inspired  by  their  living  Lord  and  Master. 

IV.  Authorship  and  Date  of  Acts.  The  critical  scholarship  of 
the  last  century  has  tended  to  confirm  the  testimony  of  early-church 
tradition  that  Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul,  was  the  writer  of  both  the 
Third  Gospel  and  the  present  book  of  Acts.  Detailed  studies  of  each 
word  and  phrase  have  demonstrated  that  the  same  literary  character- 
istics recur  throughout  these  books.  The  preponderance  of  medical 
terms,  the  marked  interest  in  miracles  of  healing,  and  the  evidence  at 
every  turn  of  the  exact  knowledge  which  only  a  physician  could  pos- 
sess (cf.  Hobart,  Medical  Language  of  St.  Luke)  distinguish  Acts  and 
the  Third  Gospel  from  all  other  New  Testament  writings.  This  re- 
markable unity  of  literary  style  and  medical  interest  points  clearly  to 
Luke,  the  physician,  as  their  common  author.  The  direct  statements 
in  Acts  strongly  confirm  this  conclusion.  In  the  accounts  of  Paul's 
journey  from  Troas  to  Philippi  (1610"17),  later  from  Philippi  to  Jerusalem 
(20&-2118),  and  from  Csesarea  to  Rome  (27-28),  the  author  writes  in  the 
first  person,  indicating  that  he  accompanied  Paul.  The  detailed  ac- 
count of  their  last  journey  to  Rome  implies  that  only  two  friends, 
Aristarchus  and  the  author  of  the  so-called  "we"  sections,  were  with 
Paul.  Of  the  six  friends  whom  Paul  states  were  with  him  at  Rome 
during  his  imprisonment  (Col.  410'14,  Philemon  23"24)  practically  none 
except  Luke  the  "beloved  physician"  (in  the  light  of  Acts  1539,  272,  and 
II  Tim.  410)  could  have  been  the  author  of  this  journal  of  travel. 

Little  is  known  regarding  Luke,  but  that  little  is  significant.  It 
is  clear  that  he  was  a  Greek  Christian.     He  was  certainly  for  a  time  a 

4 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE  OF  ACTS 

resident  and  possibly  a  native  of  Philippi,  although  tradition  makes 
him  a  native  of  Syrian  Antioch.  He  accompanied  Paul  in  his  longer 
and  more  important  journeys,  probably  in  the  capacity  of  medical  at- 
tendant; but  he  is  also  mentioned  by  the  great  apostle  as  a  "co- 
worker." His  keen  interest  in  all  questions  which  concerned  the  life 
and  work  of  Jesus  and  the  extension  of  Christianity  throughout  the 
Roman  world  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  writings  which  have 
come  from  his  pen.  Acts  218'10  indicates  that  he  remained  for  a  time 
in  the  house  of  Philip  the  Evangelist  and  that  at  Jerusalem  he  had  ample 
opportunity  to  converse  with  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  as  well  as 
with  many  others  of  the  early  Christian  disciples.  At  other  times 
he  was  associated  with  John  Mark,  Barnabas,  and  Silas,  and  in  fact 
was  personally  acquainted  with  practically  all  of  the  great  Christian 
leaders  of  the  Apostolic  Age.  His  opportunities,  therefore,  for  gather- 
ing information  and  written  records  regarding  the  facts  of  which  he 
writes  were  unusual.  The  culture,  the  historical  method,  and  the 
broad  interest  revealed  throughout  his  writings  give  to  them  a  unique 
value. 

The  date  of  the  book  of  Acts  is  still  an  open  question.  Its  preface 
indicates  that  it  was  written  after  the  Third  Gospel,  and  its  general 
point  of  view  is  that  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  first  Christian  century, 
when  the  spirited  conflicts  between  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  sections  of 
the  church  had  lost  much  of  their  bitterness.  Its  obvious  endeavor  to 
commend  Christianity  to  the  Roman  world  and  to  demonstrate  that 
the  early  apostles  were  never  hindered  nor  attacked  by  Roman  officials 
suggests  strongly  that  the  book  of  Acts  was  written  late  in  the  century, 
when  Roman  opposition  was  beginning  to  develop  but  before  the 
violent  persecutions  under  Domitian  about  96  a.d.  The  book  in  its 
final  form  may  therefore  be  dated  with  considerable  assurance  between 
80  and  95  a.d. 

V.  The  Early  Sources  Quoted  in  Acts  1M535.  If  we  did  not 
have  the  original  Gospel  of  Mark,  we  would  not  have  known  that  Luke 
in  his  gospel  was  quoting  extensively  from  this  older  written  source, 
for  his  method  was  to  reproduce  the  ideas  and  facts  of  the  original  in 
his  own  language.  This  literary  habit  makes  the  discovery  of  the 
early  sources  which  he  quoted  exceedingly  difficult.  The  evidence, 
however,  is  convincing  that  in  Acts,  as  well  as  in  his  gospel,  he  utilized 
earlier  records.  Here  the  linguistic  evidence  is  especially  strong,  for,  as 
Professor  Torrey  has  shown  {The  Aramaic  Source  in  Acts),  practically 
all  of  Acts  l4-]^35  is  Luke's  translation  of  an  older  Aramaic  source  or 


RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

sources.  This  fact  is  vitally  important,  for  it  strongly  supports  the 
historical  value  of  this  part  of  Acts.  Luke's  sources  were  not  floating, 
popular  traditions  but  definite,  written  records  evidently  committed  to 
writing  long  before  Luke  completed  our  present  book  of  Acts.  The 
linguistic  evidence  suggests  that  Luke  found  the  Aramaic  original  of  the 
first  part  of  his  history  of  early  Christianity  in  practically  the  same 
form  as  he  has  given  it  to  us  in  his  Greek  translation.  The  internal 
proof,  however,  is  cumulative  that  originally  independent  documents 
or  traditions  have  been  combined  in  this  old  Aramaic  source.  In  one 
or  two  cases  duplicate  traditions  of  the  same  event  are  discernible. 
Thus  the  analogies  are  so  many  and  so  close  between  the  simple, 
straightforward  account  of  the  imprisonment  and  liberation  of  Peter 
and  John  in  Acts  4131  and  the  more  miraculous  and  elaborate  version 
in  517"42,  that  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  are  older  and  later  versions 
of  the  same  incident.  In  Acts  9,  22,  and  26  Luke  also  gives  three 
distinct  accounts  of  Paul's  conversion,  each  of  which  differs  in  details 
from  the  others.  The  incompleteness  of  certain  of  the  narratives  also 
points  to  originally  independent  sources.  Thus,  for  example,  in  ll30  and 
152  the  elders  at  Jerusalem  are  introduced  without  any  explanation  of 
their  origin.  In  1217  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  suddenly  appears  with- 
out any  account  of  his  conversion  or  explanation  of  how  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  Jerusalem  Christian  community.  In  different  parts  of  the 
book  diverse  points  of  view  are  also  apparent.  Thus  in  chapters  3-5, 8, 
and  932-!!18,  the  interest  centres  in  Peter  and  to  him  is  attributed  the 
pioneer  work  in  reconciling  the  variant  views  of  the  Jewish  and  Gentile 
Christians  regarding  their  obligations  to  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law. 
But  in  the  section  which  begins  with  chapter  13  it  is  Paul's  persistency 
and  initiative,  even  in  the  face  of  strong  opposition,  that  finally  leads  to 
the  breaking  of  Jewish  bonds.  The  only  satisfactory  explanation  of 
these  minor,  yet  significant  variations,  is  that  originally  distinct  tradi- 
tions have  here  been  combined.  At  least  two  important  groups  of  early 
Christian  traditions  may  be  distinguished  in  chapters  3-15.  The  first 
is  found  in  &-&*,  85"40,  931-!!18,  and  121"24.  The  geographical  back- 
ground is  Palestine  and  the  events  gather  about  Jerusalem,  Csesarea, 
and  Samaria.  Peter  and  Philip  are  the  chief  actors.  It  is  possible 
that  the  facts  which  these  stories  record  were  gathered  and  written 
down  by  Philip  or  his  daughters.  The  narratives  found  in  PS4,  ll1930 
centre  about  Jerusalem  and  Antioch  and  form  the  natural  introduction 
to  the  account  of  the  first  missionary  campaign  of  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
found  in  Acts  1225-1535.    It  has  been  suggested  that  Silas,  who,  accord- 

6 


THE  EARLY  SOURCES  QUOTED  IN  ACTS 

ing  to  1527,  was  sent  as  a  messenger  by  the  Jerusalem  church  to  the 
Christians  at  Antioch,  was  perhaps  the  one  who  wrote  this  group  of 
narratives.  Whatever  be  their  exact  history,  it  is  clear  that  these  nar- 
ratives must  be  regarded  as  the  primary  sources  in  the  book  of  Acts. 
The  complete  absence  of  any  reference  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
or  to  the  bitter  persecutions  which  the  Christians  experienced  under 
Nero  favor  the  conclusion  that  the  majority  of  them  at  least  were 
written  early  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  century. 

VI.  Later  Traditions  in  l1-]^35.  In  addition  to  the  material 
drawn  from  the  earlier  written  sources  certain  narratives  are  found  in 
the  first  part  of  Acts  which  bear  all  the  marks  of  being  secondary. 
The  first  is  the  account  of  the  ascension  in  l1"12.  In  the  Gospel  of  Luke 
Jesus'  ascension  takes  place  at  the  close  of  the  day  on  which  he  arose 
from  the  grave  (cf.  V,  304,  305) ;  but  in  the  account  in  Acts  it  is  at  the 
end  of  forty  days.  Why  Luke  preferred  to  incorporate  this  in  his 
later  work  is  not  entirely  clear.  Its  presence  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
stumbling-blocks  in  accepting  the  Lucan  authorship  of  Acts.  The 
reason  is  probably  because  he  found  it  already  in  the  Aramaic  source, 
which  he  quoted  as  a  whole.  As  has  been  truly  said:  "Whatever  in- 
volved a  miracle  attracted  rather  than  repelled  Luke."  The  account 
of  the  choice  of  a  successor  to  Judas,  in  l13-25,  evidently  contains  an 
important  historical  kernel.  At  least  this  narrative  gives  us  the  first 
glimpse  into  the  life  of  the  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem.  The 
story  of  the  day  of  Pentecost  resembles  in  literary  character  the  na- 
tivity stories,  which  stand  at  the  beginnings  of  the  First  and  Third 
Gospels,  but  it  clearly  preserves  the  memory  of  a  transcendently  im- 
portant event  in  the  early  history  of  Christianity.  The  later  duplicate 
account  of  the  imprisonment  and  liberation  of  Peter  and  John,  con- 
tained in  517"42,  bears  the  marks  of  later  growth.  The  account  of  Paul's 
conversion  in  91"18  is  probably  based  on  what  appear  to  be  older  ac- 
counts in  22  and  26.  Occasional  editorial  additions,  as  for  example, 
243-47}  1122, 23,  m  12»  may  be  detected,  but  the  presence  of  these  later 
traditions  and  editorial  additions  only  tends  to  confirm  the  conviction 
that  the  web  and  woof  of  the  narratives  in  Acts  1-15  is  very  early  and 
reliable  Christian  tradition. 

VII.  The  Journal  of  Travel.  The  excellent  historical  character 
of  the  second  half  of  the  book  of  Acts  has  long  been  recognized.  Here 
at  every  point  a  familiarity  with  details  and  a  certainty  of  touch  are 
apparent  which  are  possible  only  when  the  author  is  intimately  familiar 
with  the  events  which  he  is  recording,  as  well  as  with  their  geographical 

7 


RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

and  historical  setting.  Recent  excavations  and  research  have  signally 
confirmed  the  accuracy  of  the  minute  political,  social,  and  religious  al- 
lusions to  the  peculiar  and  rapidly  changing  conditions  in  Asia  Minor 
and  southern  Europe.  The  explanation  of  these  significant  facts  is 
furnished  by  the  book  of  Acts  itself.  As  has  already  been  noted,  in 
1610-18,  20^15,  211"18,  27L-2816,  the  author  speaks  not  in  the  third  but  in  the 
first  person,  thereby  quietly  setting  forth  the  fact  that  he  himself  was  a 
witness  of  the  events  which  he  records.  The  exactness  and  minuteness 
of  detail  which  characterize  these  passages  also  suggest  strongly  that 
Luke  is  not  dependent  upon  verbal  memory  but  upon  a  journal  of 
travel,  such  as  it  was  customary  for  companions  of  important  travellers 
to  keep  in  order  to  recall  their  experiences.  It  is  also  probable  that  in 
the  passages  where  the  third  person  is  used  Luke  was  also  able  to  draw 
from  his  own  notes  or  from  those  of  others  who  accompanied  Paul,  for 
they  reveal  much  the  same  minuteness  and  exactness  of  detail  as  do 
the  so-called  "we"  passages.  This  conviction  is  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that  from  1536  to  the  end  of  the  book  there  is  not  the  slightest 
evidence  that  Luke  was  translating  from  earlier  Aramaic  sources.  The 
style  is  homogeneous  throughout.  In  contrast  to  the  first  part  of  the 
book,  where  Luke  is  quoting  from  older  Aramaic  sources  and  where 
there  are  nearly  a  hundred  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  the 
second  part  of  Acts  contains  only  one  or  two  quotations.  The  whole 
is  written  not  only  in  a  finished  literary  style  but  also  from  the  point  of 
view  of  Luke,  who  beyond  reasonable  doubt  was  himself  the  author  of 
the  journal  of  travel. 

Thus  out  of  a  half  century  of  radical  criticism,  which  has  been  in- 
clined at  times  to  seriously  discredit  the  historicity  of  the  book  of  Acts, 
it  has  emerged  and  stands  as  one  of  the  best  historical  documents  that 
have  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity.  Its  faults  are  shared  in  common 
with  the  best  historical  writings  of  the  period  as,  for  example,  the  Annals 
of  Tacitus,  in  which  miracle  stories  are  recounted  with  the  greatest  as- 
surance. In  using  the  book  of  Acts  it  is  important  to  follow  the  pri- 
mary sources.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  these  give  us  a  re- 
markably faithful  picture  of  the  chief  characters  and  events  in  the 
early  history  of  the  Christian  church.  While  the  book  of  Acts  is  ex- 
cellent history,  it  is  more  than  a  history,  it  is  the  epic  of  conquering 
Christianity;  it  is  the  pragmatic  proof  of  the  invincible  power  of  the 
spirit  and  teachings  of  Jesus. 


II 

THE  HISTORICAL   AND   RELIGIOUS    BACKGROUND 
OF  THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE 

I.  The  Rulers  of  Rome.  Augustus  realized  his  lofty  ambition 
and  brought  practically  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth  under  one 
common  rule.  Rome  in  the  first  Christian  century  represented  the 
world,  and  the  emperor  was  not  merely  the  symbol  but  the  embodi- 
ment of  all  authority  and  government.  The  welfare  of  the  world, 
therefore,  depended  as  never  before  upon  his  character  and  policy. 
As  a  result,  the  citizens  of  the  empire  experienced  the  most  varied  vicis- 
situdes of  fortune  during  the  seventy  years  (between  30  and  100  a.d.) 
which  constituted  the  background  of  the  Apostolic  Age.  Tiberius,  who 
reigned  until  37,  was  a  stern  moralist,  so  severe  that  he  was  regarded 
as  a  despot  by  the  Roman  nobility,  whose  vices  he  vainly  endeavored 
to  check.  Caligula,  who  reigned  from  37  to  41,  was  thoroughly  un- 
sound both  morally  and  mentally.  The  brevity  of  his  reign  alone 
saved  the  empire  from  shipwreck  and  his  Jewish  and  Christian  subjects 
from  terrible  persecution,  for  in  his  insanity  he  imperatively  demanded 
that  he  be  worshipped  as  a  deity  by  every  citizen  of  the  empire.  Clau- 
dius, born  in  southern  Gaul,  proved,  like  Tiberius,  a  champion  of  the 
provinces  and  endeavored  by  a  generous  policy  to  unite  in  loyal  citi- 
zenship all  parts  of  the  empire.  He  laid  down  the  significant  principle: 
"It  is  right  that  men  should  live  in  the  religion  of  their  country."  He 
also  instituted  humane  laws  in  behalf  of  slaves.  For  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  Rome  the  killing  of  a  slave  by  his  master  was  branded 
as  a  capital  offense.  After  a  reign  of  thirteen  years  Claudius  was  suc- 
ceeded in  54  by  Nero,  who  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
as  a  result  of  the  intrigues  of  his  mother,  Agrippina.  For  the  first 
eight  years  of  his  reign  the  direction  of  the  government  was  left  almost 
entirely  to  Burrus,  the  Pretorian  prefect,  and  Seneca,  the  Stoic  philos- 
opher. Seneca  favored  the  provinces,  although  he  himself  amassed  a 
great  fortune  through  the  misuse  of  his  official  position.  At  the  death 
of  Burrus  in  62  Seneca  killed  himself  at  the  emperor's  command,  and 

9 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

Nero  assumed  active  control  of  the  government.  In  contrast  to  his 
profligate  nobles,  Nero  was  not  altogether  bad  but  capricious.  His 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  64  was  only  one  of  the  many  mad  acts 
of  tyranny  that  in  68  led  to  a  revolt  of  the  provinces  which  drove  Nero 
to  suicide.  In  the  anarchy  which  ensued  four  Roman  emperors  were 
crowned  within  a  year,  three  of  whom  were  military  leaders.  The  last, 
Vespasian,  the  commander  of  the  Roman  army  in  Syria,  a  plebeian, 
succeeded  in  restoring  peace  to  the  empire.  Setting  aside  the  old 
Roman  nobility,  he  recruited  its  ranks  from  the  provinces  and  the  cities 
of  Italy.  Thereby  he  gave  new  life  to  the  Senate  which,  nominally  at 
least,  represented  the  people.  Henceforth  it  supported  the  emperor 
and  assisted  him  in  the  reorganization  of  the  empire.  Titus,  the  con- 
queror of  Jerusalem,  who  in  79  succeeded  his  father,  was  kind  and  benev- 
olent, intent  only  on  promoting  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  After  a 
short  reign  of  two  years  he  was  succeeded  in  81  by  his  younger  brother, 
Domitian,  a  scholar  with  high  moral  standards  but  ambitious  of  power 
and  suspicious  of  the  Senate.  During  his  reign  of  fifteen  years  the 
empire  prospered,  but  many  of  his  subjects  and  especially  the  Chris- 
tians were  the  victims  of  his  tyranny  and  suspicions.  Nerva,  who  in 
96  was  chosen  as  Domitian' s  successor  by  the  Senate,  shared  his  author- 
ity with  his  colleagues  and  inaugurated  an  era  of  liberty  and  good-will 
which  was  perpetuated  by  his  successor,  Trajan  (98-117).  The  rulers 
of  this  period  present  the  most  striking  contrasts.  Claudius  and  Ves- 
pasian heroically  endeavored  to  conserve  the  interests  of  all  their 
subjects.  Caligula  and  Nero,  on  the  other  hand,  were  absolutely  irre- 
sponsible and  vicious.  Titus  and  Nerva  were  too  lenient  toward  of- 
fenders and  too  lax  in  their  rule  to  control  the  diverse  elements  in  the 
empire.  Tiberius  and  Domitian  were  conscientious  tyrants  who  won 
the  ill  will  of  the  majority  of  their  subjects.  Under  these  very  differ- 
ent types  of  rulers  Christianity  in  turn  prospered  and  was  persecuted. 
II.  What  Rome  Did  for  Christianity.  It  is  an  unquestioned 
fact  that  Rome  alone  made  possible  Christianity's  marvellous  progress 
during  the  first  Christian  century.  The  rapid  spread  of  that  local 
cult,  an  offspring  of  hated  Judaism,  until  it  reached  the  farthest  bounds 
of  the  Roman  Empire  is  unquestionably  the  greatest  marvel  in  human 
history.  The  primary  explanation  is  the  personality  of  the  Founder 
of  Christianity  and  the  potency  of  the  principles  which  he  proclaimed, 
but  the  miracle  was  possible  because  its  environment  was  uniquely 
favorable.  The  strong  hand  of  Augustus  and  of  the  emperors  who 
succeeded  him  put  an  end  to  the  destructive  wars  which  had  disrupted 

10 


WHAT  ROME  DID  FOR  CHRISTIANITY 

and  devastated  the  states  encircling  the  Mediterranean  and  for  a  cen- 
tury established  practically  unbroken  peace.  Moreover,  Rome  unified 
these  diverse  nations,  broke  down  all  political  and  racial  barriers,  and 
substituted  for  petty  patriotism  an  enlarged  consciousness  of  world 
citizenship.  Throughout  its  vast  domains  Rome  established  police 
protection;  the  pirates  were  hunted  from  the  sea  and  robbers  even  from 
the  remote  mountain  passes.  Over  valleys  and  rivers  and  mountains 
broad  highways  were  built  which  made  travel  in  all  parts  of  the  empire 
relatively  easy  and  rapid.  Accommodations  for  travellers  and  traders 
were  established  in  all  the  important  cities  along  these  highways,  and 
imperial  postal  service  made  communication  easy.  Under  the  fostering 
protection  of  Rome,  Greek  traders,  artists,  and  travelling  philosophers 
carried  the  culture  and  language  of  ancient  Hellas  from  the  valleys  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  so  that  Greek  be- 
came the  common  language  of  communication  between  all  the  different 
citizens  of  the  empire,  and  even  in  the  imperial  city.  The  great  pub- 
lishing houses,  through  the  services  of  hundreds  of  slaves,  were  able  to 
issue  books  almost  as  cheaply  as  to-day.  Literature  and  the  easy 
means  of  communication  made  it  possible  for  ideas  to  travel  with 
marvellous  rapidity  throughout  the  civilized  world.  Above  all,  Rome 
until  the  very  close  of  the  first  century  was  tolerant  toward  all  types 
of  religion.  Even  in  the  imperial  city  itself  scores  of  provincial  cults 
had  their  devotees,  their  interpreters,  and  in  many  cases  their  priests 
and  temples. 

III.  Contemporary  Palestinian  Judaism.  The  Apostolic  Age 
was  a  supremely  critical  period  in  the  history  of  Judaism.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Roman  procurators,  who  in  turn  were  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  emperor,  Judea  felt  most  acutely  every  change  in  the 
policy  of  succeeding  rulers.  Tiberius' s  zeal  to  protect  the  interest  of 
the  provinces  led  him  in  36  to  banish  Pontius  Pilate  on  a  charge  of  mis- 
government.  The  mad  Caligula  figures  both  as  a  friend  and  a  foe  of 
the  Jews.  In  37  he  appointed  Herod  Agrippa,  the  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  king  over  the  east-Jordan  tetrarchy  of  Philip  and  in  39  added 
Galilee  and  Perea  to  his  dominion.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  per- 
sonal intercession  of  Herod  Agrippa,  who  had  been  a  boon  companion 
of  Caligula,  alone  saved  the  Jews  from  wholesale  slaughter  because  they 
refused  to  worship  the  emperor.  The  reign  of  Claudius  was  a  golden 
era  for  his  Jewish  subjects.  In  payment  of  certain  personal  obligations 
to  Herod  Agrippa  the  emperor  made  him  king  over  all  the  territory 
that  had  belonged  to  his  grandfather,  Herod  the  Great.     For  three 

11 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

years,  41-44,  the  Jews  enjoyed  great  prosperity  and  privileges  under 
his  rule.  Like  most  of  the  Herodian  family  he  was  a  pagan  at  heart, 
but  he  posed  as  the  guardian  of  Jewish  traditions  and  rights  not  only 
in  Palestine  but  throughout  the  Roman  world.  His  sudden  death 
in  44  a.d.  marked  the  beginning  of  a  disastrous  chapter  in  Jewish  his- 
tory. His  son,  Agrippa  II,  was  later  made  king  of  the  kingdom  of 
Chalcis  and  given  charge  of  the  Jerusalem  temple  and  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing the  high  priest,  but  in  44  a.d.  Judah  was  again  placed  under 
the  rule  of  the  procurators.  Each  succeeding  ruler  proved  worse  than 
his  predecessor.  The  history  of  Judah  from  44  to  66  is  a  sickening 
record  of  cruelty  and  rapacity  on  the  part  of  the  procurators  and  of 
insurrections,  futile  messianic  uprisings,  and  growing  hatred  on  the 
part  of  the  Jews.  After  the  death  of  Nero,  and  while  rival  emperors 
were  struggling  for  the  imperial  throne,  the  Zealots  precipitated  the 
final  rebellion  against  Rome  which  resulted  in  the  complete  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple.  Fanaticism  and  civil  war  between 
the  different  Jewish  factions  made  this  one  of  the  bloodiest  struggles 
in  human  history.  Finally,  after  Vespasian  had  been  made  emperor, 
Titus,  his  son,  was  left  victor  over  a  smouldering  ruin  and  a  devastated 
land.  From  70  to  the  end  of  the  century  the  intellectual  capital  of 
Judaism  was  transferred  to  Jamnia.  Here  its  learned  rabbis  continued 
to  study  the  law.  Here  also  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  was  com- 
pleted about  90  a.d.  Though  mortally  smitten  by  Rome,  the  Jews  con- 
tinued to  dream  their  dreams  of  the  Messiah  who  would  yet  descend 
from  heaven,  judge  the  heathen  nations,  and  set  up  his  supernatural 
kingdom  in  which  the  faithful  would  be  raised  from  the  dead  to  share 
with  those  who  were  living  the  glories  of  the  messianic  reign. 

IV.  The  Judaism  of  the  Dispersion.  In  the  apostolic  history 
the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  figured  more  prominently  than  those  of 
Palestine.  Continued  residence  in  Greek-speaking  lands  had  produced 
in  many  ways  a  different  type  of  Jew  from  that  found  under  the  shadow 
of  the  temple.  He  was  equally  loyal  to  the  traditions  and  institutions 
of  his  race  and  made  frequent  pilgrimages  to  the  sacred  city,  but  his 
outlook  was  broader  and  his  mind  more  open  to  new  truth.  Many  of 
them,  like  Philo  of  Alexandria  and  the  author  of  IV  Maccabees,  had 
accepted  many  of  the  principles  of  the  Greek  philosophers  and  were 
endeavoring  both  in  theory  and  practice  to  reconcile  Judaism  and 
Hellenism.  In  their  contemporary  writings  one  will  find  many  ideas 
that  are  familiar  to  the  readers  of  Paul's  epistles.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  author  of  IV  Ezra  (321)  declares:  "The  first  Adam,  clothing  him- 

12 


THE   JUDAISM  OF  THE  DISPERSION 

self  with  the  evil  heart,  transgressed  and  was  overcome;  and  likewise 
also  all  who  were  born  of  him."  Like  their  Palestinian  brothers,  they 
were  expecting  the  speedy  advent  of  a  divine  messianic  king  to  inaugu- 
rate a  new  era  in  human  history.  Beginning  as  early  as  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.  an  earnest  missionary  spirit  had  developed  among  these  Jews 
of  the  dispersion.  The  Greek  translation  of  the  scriptures  had  been 
made  not  only  for  their  use  but  to  commend  the  truths  which  these 
contained  to  the  Gentile  world.  In  such  centres  as  Alexandria,  the 
Greek  allegorizing  and  spiritualizing  methods  of  interpretation,  had  been 
applied  by  many  Jewish  scholars  to  these  older  scriptures.  Israel's  cere- 
monial institutions  and  even  the  chief  events  of  its  history  were  inter- 
preted simply  as  symbols  of  spiritual  realities  or  of  future  events. 
Under  this  allegorizing  process  the  strict  insistence  upon  obedience  to 
the  ceremonial  law  was  gradually  given  up  and  thus  the  door  to  Judaism 
was  opened  wide  to  the  Gentile  world. 

The  intense  zeal  of  these  later  Jewish  missionaries  is  revealed  by  the 
volume  and  variety  of  the  literature  which  they  put  forth.  By  means 
of  an  elastic,  allegorizing  method  of  interpretation  all  that  was  finest 
in  Greek  philosophy  was  read  back  into  the  Old  Testament.  Moses 
and  the  later  prophets  were  proclaimed  the  forerunners  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  Greek  philosophy  was  thus  made  the  servant  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  for  whatever  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  wrote  had  the  prac- 
tical aim  of  winning  converts  and  of  influencing  men  to  live  a  higher 
moral  life.  Imitating  Homer,  Philo  of  Alexandria  wrote  an  epic  de- 
scribing in  heroic  terms  the  great  events  and  personalities  of  Israel's 
history.  These  earnest  missionaries  even  dramatized  that  stirring  his- 
tory. Fragments  of  the  great  religious  epic  called  The  Exodus  sur- 
vive as  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  they  used  the  methods  of  the 
Greek  drama  to  commend  the  religion  of  Jehovah  to  the  Hellenic  world. 
Their  earliest  efforts  were  rewarded.  Many  Greeks  and  Romans 
shared  Israel's  faith.  A  few  became  what  were  called  "proselytes  of 
righteousness,"  submitting  to  circumcision  and  faithfully  keeping  all 
the  commands  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law.  These  were  freely  ad- 
mitted to  all  the  services  of  the  temple  and  enjoyed  in  full  the  re- 
ligious privileges  of  native-born  Jews.  The  majority,  however,  took 
only  a  partial  step  toward  Judaism.  They  accepted  its  monotheism 
and  its  moral  and  social  teachings  but  did  not  attempt  to  meet  all  its 
ceremonial  requirements.  Apparently  these  converts  were  welcomed 
by  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  and  were  admitted  freely  to  the  services 
of  the  synagogue.     These  were  included  in  the  class  designated  in  the 

13 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

book  of  Acts  as  the  "God-fearing  Greeks."  They  were  found  in  al- 
most every  synagogue  which  Paul  visited  in  the  larger  cities  outside 
Palestine.  It  is  probable  that  this  class  also  included  the  open-minded 
students  of  religion,  of  whom  there  were  many,  who  were  seeking  re- 
ligious and  ethical  truth  and  inspiration  wherever  they  could  find  them. 
They  reveal  clearly  the  religious  conditions  and  spiritual  needs  of  the 
world  to  which  Christianity  appealed.  From  their  ranks  came  most 
of  the  early  Gentile  converts.  Their  presence  in  the  synagogues  also 
exerted  a  powerful  broadening  influence  upon  the  Jews  of  the  disper- 
sion, preparing  them  for  the  reception  of  the  nobler  message  which 
Christianity  brought.  Thus  this  wide-spread  Jewish  missionary  move- 
ment must  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  most  important  forces  in  preparing 
the  world  for  Christianity. 

V.  The  Greek  Philosophies.  The  Jewish  scholars  of  the  dis- 
persion, in  seeking  to  reconcile  Moses  and  Plato,  paid  the  highest 
tribute  they  possibly  could  to  the  Greek  philosophers.  Israel's  prac- 
tical religious  teachers  recognized  that  there  was  much  in  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  Greece  that  possessed  a  permanent  value  for  all  man- 
kind. They  realized  that  the  philosophers,  like  the  Hebrew  sages, 
approached  life  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  individual.  When  the 
gods  of  the  old  Greek  mythology  were  beginning  to  topple  into  the 
dust,  these  lovers  of  men  strove  to  give  their  fellows  certain  working 
principles  by  which  to  live.  Plato's  great  permanent  contribution  to 
Hellenic  thought  was  the  belief  in  individual  immortality.  In  the 
first  Christian  century  he  was  better  represented  by  Philo,  the  fan- 
tastic but  earnest  Jew  of  Alexandria,  than  by  the  dilettante  acade- 
micians at  Rome,  whose  attitude  on  most  vital  questions  was  either 
negative  or  skeptical. 

Epicureanism  was  still  an  active  force  in  the  empire.  These  sturdy 
scientists  of  that  early  age  held  that  matter  was  the  only  ultimate 
reality  and  that  their  senses  were  the  only  guides  to  be  trusted  in  the 
quest  for  truth.  All  the  current  superstitions  they  unhesitatingly 
threw  overboard.  They  were  ready  to  grant  that  the  gods  existed, 
but  not  that  they  exerted  any  influence  in  the  earth  or  on  the  life  of 
man.  In  this  respect  they  stood  directly  opposed  to  the  Stoics.  The 
crowning  virtue  of  the  Epicureans  was  their  sturdy  loyalty  to  facts 
as  they  saw  them.  It  was,  however,  a  cold  philosophy  entirely  devoid 
of  spiritual  inspiration. 

Out  of  the  noble  teaching  and  example  of  Socrates  grew  the  two 
philosophies  which  were  potent  moral  and  religious  forces  in  the  life 

14 


THE  GREEK  PHILOSOPHIES 

of  the  age.  Both  were  inspired  by  the  same  missionary  zeal  and  the 
same  interest  in  the  moral  welfare  of  the  individual  that  had  actuated 
the  great  Athenian  teacher.  Cynicism,  whose  founder  was  a  pupil 
of  Socrates,  aimed  to  teach  men  how  to  live  true  to  nature.  This 
ideal  was  often  carried  to  crude  extremes.  The  Cynic  philosophers 
were  the  early  prototypes  of  the  Franciscan  friars,  and  they  were  sin- 
cerely devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  masses.  Most  of  them  lived 
lives  of  noble  self-sacrifice  and  undoubtedly  exerted  a  great  influence 
on  the  people.  Their  basic  creed  was  closely  akin  to  that  of  the  Stoics. 
This  popular  philosophy  bore  the  stamp  of  its  eastern  origin.  It 
taught  that  the  ultimate  reality  in  the  universe  was  not  matter  but 
reason,  and  that  the  final  source  of  reason  was  God.  The  Logos, 
or  divine  Reason,  is  what  binds  men  to  God.  All  men,  therefore,  are 
divine  in  so  far  as  that  divine  Reason  enters  into  them  and  they  follow 
its  guidance.  Here  the  author  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  and  the 
Stoic  philosophers  join  hands.  Like  the  Founder  of  Christianity,  they 
taught  that  the  supreme  task  in  life  was  to  do  the  divine  will,  and  that 
the  will  of  God  is  done  by  living  a  virtuous  life  in  the  service  of  man. 
In  theory  at  least  Stoicism  was  also  democratic,  for  it  taught  that  all 
men  possess  this  divine  Reason  and  that  only  those  who  refuse  to 
follow  its  dictates  and  commit  crimes  not  in  harmony  with  the  divine 
plan  are  slaves.  The  Stoics  also  believed  that  pain  and  suffering 
possess  a  positive  value  in  developing  the  individual  and  that  therefore 
they  should  be  patiently  and  even  joyously  borne.  In  dealing  with 
the  old  mythologies  they,  like  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion,  employed  the 
allegorical  method  of  interpretation.  They  also  sought  to  retain  the 
older  forms  of  their  religion,  as  long  as  they  were  helpful  in  develop- 
ing the  individual.  Regarding  his  future  immortality  their  teachings, 
especially  in  the  first  Christian  century,  were  vague  and  uncertain. 
To  the  prosperous,  educated  man  Cynicism  and  Stoicism  had  much 
to  offer.  They  seemed  to  satisfy  the  facts  of  experience  and  furnished 
a  practical  basis  for  living.  But  for  the  outcast  or  the  man  who  faced 
death  the  religion  of  Reason  gave  but  cold  comfort.  At  the  same  time 
these  two  philosophies  were  in  a  very  real  sense  pioneers  of  Christian- 
ity. The  belief  that  men  were  the  children  of  God,  that  communica- 
tion between  him  and  them  was  possible,  and  that  the  end  of  existence 
was  to  do  his  will  by  living  a  virtuous  and  self-sacrificing  life  had  been 
held  and  taught  as  strongly  by  Israel's  prophets  and  sages  as  by  the 
founders  of  these  two  philosophies.  The  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  or 
divine  Reason,  as  the  bond  between  God  and  men  was  also  destined  to 

15 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  certain  phases  of  Christian  thinking, 
and  to  find  acceptance,  as  it  does  in  the  opening  verses  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel. 

VI.  The  Emperor-Worship.  Rome  did  not  inherit  from  its  past 
a  native  religion  virile  and  broad  enough  to  become  the  religion  of  the 
empire.  Yet  the  need  was  keenly  felt  for  a  co-ordinating  religious 
influence  which  would  reinforce  the  growing  consciousness  of  political 
unity.  Emperor-worship  attempted  to  meet  this  need.  Historically 
it  was  the  product  of  a  long  evolutionary  process.  In  its  origin  the 
idea  was  Oriental  rather  than  Occidental.  In  ancient  Egypt  and  Baby- 
lonia the  kings  were  believed  to  be  incarnations  of  the  deity.  Thus 
the  old  Babylonian  kings  Sargon  I  and  Naram  Sin  in  the  fourth  mil- 
lennium B.C.  placed  the  sign  for  god  before  their  names.  Gudea,  the 
Sumerian  king  of  ancient  Lagash,  prayed  to  a  goddess:  "I  have  no 
mother,  thou  art  my  mother.  I  have  no  father,  thou  art  my  father. 
...  In  the  sanctuary  thou  didst  bear  me."  When  Alexander  the 
Great  conquered  the  East  he  was  soon  deified  and  was  worshipped  long 
after  his  death.  His  successors,  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  were 
practically  without  exception  thus  worshipped.  From  the  Orient  this 
tendency  to  deify  successful  rulers  spread  to  the  Western  world.  The 
Greeks  themselves  early  show  an  inclination  to  worship  genius.  Thus 
Aristotle  reared  an  altar  in  Athens  to  Plato  soon  after  his  death.  As 
has  been  well  said:  "The  Greek  theory  of  monarchy  started  with  man 
and  made  of  him  its  god;  the  Oriental  notion  started  with  God  and 
made  the  monarch  in  his  image"  (Case,  Evolution  of  Early  Christian- 
ity, p.  205).  Pompey  was  publicly  proclaimed  a  god  in  Athens.  Dio 
Cassius  (XLIII,  146)  and  Suetonius  {Julius  Casar,  76)  both  state  that 
Julius  Caesar  was  styled  during  his  lifetime  "The  God  and  Dictator 
and  Saviour  of  All  the  World."  In  42  B.C.  the  Roman  Senate  enacted 
that  his  title  should  be,  "Divus  Julius."  Augustus's  disapproval  of 
this  strong  popular  tendency  repressed  its  public  expression  during 
his  lifetime,  but  it  did  not  prevent  the  masses  from  worshipping  him 
long  after  his  death.  Henceforth  it  became  a  fixed  institution  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  Inasmuch  as  it  was  a  valuable  uniting  force,  it  was  en- 
couraged even  by  the  better  emperors.  Moreover,  there  soon  gathered 
about  it  certain  national  hopes  that  were  akin  to  the  Jewish  messianic 
expectations.  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  were  longing  for  a  divine  de- 
liverer who  would  put  down  evil,  establish  justice,  and  inaugurate  an 
era  of  prosperity.     Vergil's  famous  prediction,  found  in  his  fourth 

16 


THE  EMPEROR-WORSHIP 

Eclogue,  clearly  voices  this  hope:  "The  last  age  prophesied  by  the 
sibyl  has  come  and  the  great  series  of  ages  begins  anew.  Justice  now 
returns,  Saturn  reigns  once  more,  and  a  new  progeny  is  sent  down 
from  high  heaven.  O  chaste  Lucina,  be  thou  propitious  to  the  infant 
boy  under  whom  first  the  iron  age  shall  cease  and  the  golden  age  over 
all  the  world  arise.  ...  O  child,  as  soon  as  thou  shalt  be  able  to 
read  the  praises  of  heroes  and  the  achievements  of  thy  sire  and  to 
know  what  virtue  is,  the  fields  shall  by  degrees  grow  yellow  with 
ripening  corn,  blushing  grapes  shall  hang  on  a  rude  bramble,  and 
hard  oaks  shall  drip  with  dewy  honey.  .  .  .  Dear  offspring  of  the 
gods,  mighty  seed  of  Jove,  enter  thy  great  heritage,  for  the  time  is 
now  at  hand.  See  how  the  world's  massive  dome  bows  before  thee — 
earth  and  oceans  and  the  vault  of  heaven I"  Roman  and  Jew  be- 
lieved that  the  coming  deliverer,  whom  they,  like  Vergil,  thought  would 
speedily  appear,  was  to  be  divinely  gifted  and  that  his  advent  was  to 
be  attended  by  marvellous  portents.  These  miracles  meant  more  to 
the  Orientals  than  to  the  Greeks  or  Romans.  The  latter  preferred 
to  worship  a  man  who  manifested  heroic  qualities  rather  than  a  God 
merely  let  down  from  heaven.  Both  Greek  and  Oriental  believed, 
however,  that  the  uniqueness  of  those  whom  they  deified  came  through 
birth.  "Son  of  God"  was  a  common  term  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  and  was  interpreted  by  them  in  a  very  literal  sense.  Augustus 
bore  the  title  Divi  films,  and  many  were  the  traditions  current  regard- 
ing his  divine  parentage  and  miraculous  birth  (e.  g.,  Suetonius,  Aug., 
94).  Therefore  the  early  Christian  missionaries  found  the  Grseco- 
Roman  world  in  an  expectant  attitude.  Their  claim  seemed  as  natural 
as  that  of  the  scientists  do  to  the  men  of  the  twentieth  century.  Their 
only  task  was  to  prove  their  facts.  It  was  also  inevitable  that  mission- 
aries like  Paul,  who  were  Roman  citizens,  speaking  to  their  Gentile  audi- 
ences, should  interpret  Jesus  in  the  terms  not  only  of  the  Jewish  mes- 
sianic hope  but  of  the  larger  Roman  world  to  which  they  appealed. 
Thus  it  was  that  the  emperor- worship  proved  an  active  force  in  opening 
their  eyes  to  the  fact  that  Jesus  was  not  a  mere  Jewish  Messiah  but 
the  universal  Saviour  of  mankind.  This  potent  influence  also  carried 
many  of  the  early  Christian  theologians  still  further  and  led  them  to 
proclaim  him  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  universe,  as  well  as  the 
Friend  and  Saviour  of  sinful  men. 

VII.     The  Mystery=ReIigions.    The  emperor-cult,  which  was  sim- 
ply the  worship  of  power  and  success,  and  the  Greek  philosophies, 

17 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

with  their  cold  appeal  to  reason,  never  fully  met  the  deeper  spiritual 
needs  of  the  people.  What  they  desired  was  something  that  would 
satisfy  their  emotions  as  well  as  their  reason  and  would  give  them  the 
consciousness  of  fellowship  with  the  Deity  and  the  assurance  of  per- 
sonal salvation.  This  craving  for  individual  protection  and  salvation 
is  as  old  as  the  race.  As  soon  as  man  recognized  the  presence  of  hos- 
tile forces  in  the  world,  he  sought  means  whereby  he  might  ally  him- 
self with  some  higher  power  or  powers  that  would  deliver  him.  First 
he  felt  the  need  of  deliverance  from  natural  forces,  from  wild  beasts 
and  human  foes.  Larger  experience  opened  his  eyes  to  the  malignant 
effects  of  sin.  Therefore  he  went  in  quest  of  a  saviour  or  of  a  way 
that  would  deliver  him  from  this  insidious  evil.  Many  were  the  ways 
that  were  devised.  Scientific  knowledge  in  time  provided  a  partial 
way  of  deliverance  from  his  old  foes — hostile  man  and  beast  and  the 
forces  of  nature.  Moral  laws  also  pointed  out  ways  in  which  he  might 
in  part  anticipate  the  malign  effects  of  sin;  but  he  never  ceased  to  feel 
the  need  of  the  help  of  some  power  outside  himself.  Judaism  and 
Stoicism  put  the  greater  emphasis  on  man's  activity  as  the  way  of 
deliverance.  The  so-called  mystery-religions  put  the  chief  stress  on 
the  help  from  without.  They  greatly  attracted  the  masses  because 
they  claimed  to  make  clear  the  way  in  which  man  might  put  himself 
into  touch  with  this  power  from  without  and  be  assured  of  salvation. 
There  were  many  types  of  mystery-religions  in  the  Roman  Empire, 
each  with  its  exponents  and  its  devotees.  From  Egypt  came  the 
mysteries  of  Isis;  from  Persia  and  India  the  Mithra  cults.  From 
Asia  Minor  came  the  Cybele-Attis  mysteries.  In  Greece  the  Eleu- 
sinian  mysteries,  which  were  associated  with  the  worship  of  Demeter, 
and  the  more  riotous  Orphic  cults  had  long  flourished.  Each  of  these 
had  its  representatives  in  Rome  and  in  many  of  the  larger  cities  in 
the  empire.  Each  had  attracted  to  its  shrine  Romans,  Greeks,  and 
Orientals,  for  each  had  ceased  to  be  merely  a  national  religion  or 
local  cult.  The  rites  differed  widely.  As  a  rule,  the  Oriental  types 
were  more  frenzied  and  appealed  largely  to  the  emotions  and  some- 
times to  the  passions,  but  they  all  had  certain  characteristics  in  com- 
mon. They  all  claimed  to  bring  their  initiates  into  personal  communion 
with  the  Deity  by  means  of  their  mystic  rites.  They  demanded  of  their 
followers,  as  a  preliminary,  ceremonial  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  moral 
purity.  Thus  the  requirement  of  the  candidate  in  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries  was  that  he  should  be  able  to  speak  the  Greek  language  in- 

18 


THE  MYSTERY-RELIGIONS 

telligently  and  "be  pure  of  hand."  To  this  was  later  added  the  re- 
quirement that  he  should  "be  pure  of  soul."  Most  of  the  mystery- 
religions  also  promised  to  give  to  their  initiates  the  consciousness  of 
deliverance  from  sin  and  of  reconciliation  with  the  Deity.  To  this  they 
added  the  assurance  of  personal  immortality  and  of  dwelling  happily 
with  the  gods.  As  a  result  of  their  primitive  origin,  the  popular  mys- 
tery-religions were  a  strange,  almost  incomprehensible  combination  of 
sensuality  and  idealism,  often  passing  over  into  asceticism,  of  sur- 
vivals of  pagan  sorcery  and  ritualism,  combined  with  the  loftiest  con- 
ceptions of  Greek  philosophy,  of  crude  beliefs,  coming  from  barbarous 
ages,  and  divine  ideals  of  fellowship  with  God  and  man.  Notwith- 
standing their  traditional  limitations,  they  were  not  only  tolerated  by 
the  emperors  but  received  the  indorsement  of  prominent  Romans. 
Cicero  declares  (in  De  Leg.,  314) :  "In  the  mysteries  we  perceive  the  prin- 
ciples of  real  life  and  learn  not  only  to  live  happily  but  we  die  with  a 
fairer  hope."  By  virtue  of  their  democracy  and  their  appeal  to  uni- 
versal human  needs  the  mystery-religions  proved  Christianity's  strong- 
est competitor  in  the  first  century.  At  the  same  time,  like  Judaism 
and  the  Greek  philosophies  and  even  the  emperor-worship,  they  did 
much  to  prepare  the  minds  of  men  for  the  reception  of  Christianity. 
As  was  inevitable,  when  competition  was  so  close  and  constant  and 
when  there  was  so  much  in  them  that  was  essentially  good,  they  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  upon  Christianity,  as  is  shown,  for  example,  not 
only  in  the  language  but  also  in  the  thought  of  Paul  and  in  the  rites 
which  were  ultimately  adopted  by  the  Christian  church. 

VIII.  The  Religious  and  Social  Needs  of  the  Masses  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  Christianity  in  the  first  century  spoke  to  a  needy 
world.  Rome  had  done  much  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  masses, 
but  it  could  not  satisfy  the  deeper  cravings  of  the  individual.  Men 
crave  companionship.  The  many  guilds  and  fraternities  which  flour- 
ished throughout  the  empire  revealed  this  need.  They  also  longed 
for  a  way  of  personal  as  well  as  social  salvation.  Amidst  the  wreck- 
age of  the  old  mythologies  they  longed  for  a  worthy  object  of  personal 
belief  and  devotion.  The  crimes  and  their  consequences,  which  del- 
uged and  blackened  society  and  the  life  of  the  individual,  had  made 
vividly  clear  the  need  of  a  faith  that  would  unite  religion  and  morals. 
The  disastrous  distinctions  between  slave  and  freedmen  and  irre- 
sponsible noble  had  sent  the  thinkers  of  the  world  in  quest  of  a  unifying 
faith  that  would  bind  all  men  and  classes  together.    Even  in  imperial 

19 


THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  AGE 

Rome  the  great  crying  need  was  for  democracy  and  fellowship  in  re- 
ligion, for  a  faith  that  would  make  all  men  brothers  and  happy  and 
hopeful  in  the  common  service  of  a  common  Lord  and  Master.  In 
that  ancient  world,  with  its  hundreds  of  rival  cults,  Christianity 
emerged  triumphant  because  it  met  these  universal  needs. 


20 


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PRIMITIVE   CHRISTIANITY   IN  PALES- 
TINE AND   SYRIA 


§  CXLVI.    THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  CHRISTIAN 
COMMUNITY 

Now  when  the  disciples  entered  Jerusalem  they  went  Return 
to  the  upper  room  where  they  were  in  the  habit  of  staying.  Sfs!he 
There  were  Peter,  John,  James,  Andrew,  Philip  and  Thomas,  «Ples 
Bartholomew  and  Matthew,  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  jeru- 
Simon  the  Zealot,  and  Judas  the  son  of  James.  All  these  ^S 
men  continued  with  one  mind  in  earnest  prayer,  together  I1314) 
with  the  women,  with  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  and  his 
brothers. 

Now  during  those  days  Peter,  standing  up  in  the  midst  of  choice 
the  brothers — there  was  a  crowd  of  about  one  hundred  and  £££ 
twenty  persons  all  together— said,  Brothers,  it  is  necessary  cesser 
that  the  scripture  be  fulfilled  which  the  Holy  Spirit  spoke  Judas 
beforehand  by  the  mouth  of  David  in  regard  to  Judas,  who  if^. 
acted  as  guide  to  those  who  seized  Jesus.    For  it  is  written  20-26) 
in  the  Book  of  Psalms 

Desolate  be  his  habitation, 
And  may  no  one  dwell  in  it; 
also 

Let  another  man  take  over  his  office. 

Therefore  it  is  necessary  that  of  the  men  who  have  been 
associated  with  us,  one  should  join  us  as  a  witness  to 
his  resurrection.  So  they  put  forward  two  men,  Joseph, 
called  Barsabbas  (surnamed  Justus),  and  Matthias.  And 
they  prayed,  O  Lord,  who  knowest  well  the  hearts  of  all,  do 
thou  show  clearly  which  of  these  two  men  thou  hast  chosen 
to  take  the  place  in  this  apostolic  ministry  from  which  Judas, 
through  transgression,  fell  away,  in  order  to  go  to  his  own 

21 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

place.    Then  they  cast  lots  for  them  and  the  lot  fell  upon 
Matthias,  who  was  assigned  the  place  with  the  eleven  apos- 
tles. 
The  Now  when  the  day  of  Pentecost  came,  they  were  all  to- 

ffi"^  gether,  when  suddenly  there  came  a  sound  from  heaven 
gari-  like  a  violent  rushing  blast  of  wind  which  rilled  the  whole 
tiona~  house  where  they  were  seated.  And  they  were  all  filled 
dayo!  with,  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  they  began  to  speak  in  other 
^gjto-  tongues  as  the  Spirit  enabled  them  to  express  themselves. 
(S?-*.«.  Now  when  this  sound  was  heard  the  multitude  gathered; 
**' 12' 13)  and  they  were  all  amazed  and  perplexed,  saying  to  one  an- 
other, What  can  it  mean?  But  some  others  said  sneeringly, 
They  are  brimful  of  new  wine ! 
Peters  But  Peter  stood  up  along  with  the  eleven,  and  raising  his 
nSion  voice  addressed  them:  Men  of  Judea  and  residents  of 
Sol  Jerusalem,  let  each  of  you  understand  this  and  listen  at- 
ofthe1  tentively  to  what  I  say:  these  men  are  not  drunk  as  you 
chiles  suppose,  for  it  is  only  nine  in  the  morning!  Rather  this  is 
P**)      what  was  predicted  by  the  prophet  Joel: 

And  it  shall  be  in  the  last  days,  saith  God, 
I  will  pour  out  of  my  Spirit  upon  all  flesh, 
And  your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy, 
And  your  young  men  shall  see  visions, 
And  your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams, 
And  yea,  even  upon  slaves  and  slave-girls 
In  those  days  I  will  pour  out  my  Spirit, 
And  they  shall  prophesy. 

And  I  will  display  wonders  in  the  heavens  above, 
And  signs  on  the  earth  below, 
Blood,  fire,  and  vapor  of  smoke; 
The  sun  shall  be  changed  into  darkness, 
And  the  moon  into  blood, 

Before  the  great,  illustrious  day  of  the  Lord  comes. 
And  every  one  who  calls  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord 
shall  be  saved. 

Jesus'        Men  of  Israel,  hear  these  words:  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  a 

(£?2j     man  accredited  to  you  by  God  through  miracles,  wonders, 

and  signs  which  God  performed  by  him  in  your  midst,  as 

22 


JESUS'  DEATH  AND  RESURRECTION 

you  yourselves  know,  this  Jesus,  delivered  up  in  accor- 
dance with  God's  settled  purpose  and  foreknowledge,  you  by 
the  hand  of  wicked  men  nailed  to  the  cross  and  slew. 

But  God  raised  him  to  life  by  checking  the  pangs  of  death  His 
because  it  was  not  possible  for  him  to  be  held  by  death.  Son 
For  David  says  of  him:  (24-32) 

I  saw  the  Lord  constantly  before  me, 

For  he  is  at  my  right  hand  lest  I  be  shaken. 

For  this  reason  my  heart  is  glad  and  my  tongue  exults, 

My  flesh  also  shall  rest  in  hope, 

Because  thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  the  grave, 

Nor  let  thy  holy  one  suffer  decay. 

Thou  hast  made  known  to  me  the  ways  of  life, 

Thou  wilt  fill  me  with  gladness  in  thy  presence. 

Brothers,  I  can  speak  freely  to  you  about  the  patriarch 
David :  he  died  and  was  buried  and  his  tomb  is  with  us  to 
this  day.  Being  a  prophet  and  knowing  that  God  had  sworn 
with  an  oath  to  him  that  he  would  seat  one  of  his  descen- 
dants on  his  throne,  he  spoke  with  prophetic  foresight  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  Christ  when  he  said  that  he  was 
not  left  forsaken  in  the  grave  nor  did  his  flesh  suffer  decay. 
This  Jesus  God  raised  to  life  as  we  all  can  bear  witness. 

Exalted  then  by  God's  right  hand,  and  having  received  His  ex- 
from  the  Father  the  promised  Holy  Spirit,  he  hath  poured  %£%; 
on  us  this  which  you  now  see  and  hear.   For  it  was  not  David  toj: 
who  ascended  to  heaven,  but  David  himself  says,  Sonof 

divine 
author- 

The  Lord  said  to  my  Lord,  *  Sit  at  my  right  hand,         gr 
Until  I  put  your  enemies  under  your  feet.' 

Therefore  let  all  the  house  of  Israel  know  beyond  doubt  that 
God  hath  made  him  both  Lord  and  Christ,  this  very  Jesus 
whom  you  have  crucified.  The 

Now  when  they  heard  this  they  were  stung  to  the  heart;  effect 
they  said  to  Peter  and  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  Brothers,  peters 
what  are  we  to  do?    And  Peter  replied,  Repent  and  be  !*$£ss 
baptized  every  one  of  you  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  ws 
order  that  your  sins  may  be  put  away;  then  you  will  receive  (^^ 

23 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  For  the  promise  is  intended  for 
you  and  for  your  children  and  for  all  who  are  far  off,  for  as 
many  as  the  Lord  our  God  may  call  to  himself.  And  with 
many  more  appeals  he  solemnly  warned  and  entreated  them, 
saying,  Save  yourselves  from  this  crooked  generation!  So 
those  who  accepted  what  he  said  were  baptized  and  on 
that  day  about  three  thousand  souls  were  added  to  them. 

I.  The  Return  of  the  Disciples  to  Jerusalem.  "Jesus  lives 
and  reigns  on  high"  is  the  triumphant  note  with  which  the  Gospels 
end  and  the  history  of  the  Apostolic  Age  begins.  However  the  under- 
lying historical  facts  may  be  conceived  or  psychologically  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  the  widely  varying  records,  the  vivid  consciousness  of 
Jesus'  presence  is  one  of  the  great  impelling  forces  throughout  the 
apostolic  period.  At  every  point  this  consciousness  explains  what  is 
otherwise  inexplicable.  It  is  the  only  sufficient  answer  to  the  question 
of  why  Jesus'  disciples,  who  according  to  the  oldest  gospel  record  (cf. 
V,  298,  304)  had  fled  to  Galilee,  terrified  and  heart-broken,  suddenly 
returned,  accompanied  by  over  a  hundred  of  his  followers,  to  take  up 
their  permanent  abode  in  Jerusalem.  Their  homes,  their  friends,  and 
their  occupations  were  all  in  Galilee;  while  Jerusalem  was  the  centre 
of  that  Judaism  which  had  rejected  their  Master  and  the  home  of  the 
Pharisees  who  had  hunted  him  out  of  Galilee.  Here  the  Sadducean 
leaders,  whose  intrigues  had  placed  him  on  the  cross,  ruled  all  but 
supreme.  In  returning  to  this  city  of  tragic  memories  the  followers  of 
the  crucified  Nazarene  had  reason  to  expect  only  penury,  peril,  and 
persecution.  Luke  gives  no  direct  explanation  of  their  heroic  action, 
for  he  follows  the  later  traditions  which  overlook  the  humiliating  fact 
that  they  had  at  first  fled.  Many  have  been  the  explanations  offered 
by  modern  historians;  but  three  closely  related  reasons  appear  to  have 
influenced  the  disciples  to  take  this  perilous  but  important  step.  The 
first  and  chief  reason  was  their  absolute  conviction  that  their  Master 
was  still  living  and  in  their  midst.  Paul  declares  that  Jesus  appeared 
not  only  to  Peter  and  the  Eleven  but  also  to  five  hundred  disci- 
ples. This  statement  is  supported  by  the  important  incidental  testi- 
mony of  Acts  l23.  Joseph  and  Matthias,  in  the  days  preceding  the 
memorable  feast  of  Pentecost,  are  selected  as  apparently  only  two  of 
the  many  who  were  witnesses  of  Jesus'  resurrection,  and  Stephen  and 
Paul  appear  to  be  the  last  to  share  these  visions.  No  fear  of  danger 
could  deter  men  into  whose  eyes  the  light  of  heaven  had  shone  from 

24 


RETURN  OF  THE  DISCIPLES  TO   JERUSALEM 

proclaiming  that  fact  at  the  centre  of  their  nation's  life.  These  visions 
also  confirmed  them  in  the  growing  conviction  that  Jesus  was  beyond 
doubt  the  Messiah  or  Christ  for  which  their  race  had  long  waited. 
Henceforth  they  unhesitatingly  interpreted  every  utterance  of  Old 
Testament  prophet,  priest,  or  psalmist,  which  seemed  to  look  forward 
to  the  work  of  the  Messiah,  as  clear  predictions  of  their  Master  and  of 
the  memorable  era  in  which  they  were  living. 

These  marvellous  experiences  also  seemed  to  them  to  confirm  the 
popular  Jewish  apocalyptic  beliefs,  already  strong  in  their  minds,  that 
Jesus  as  Messiah  would  soon  come  again  with  supernatural  power  to 
establish  his  rule  on  earth.  The  familiar  prophecy  of  Malachi  31: 
"The  Lord  whom  ye  seek  will  suddenly  come  to  his  temple,"  undoubt- 
edly seemed  to  them  a  direct  divine  promise  pointing  them  the  way 
to  Jerusalem.  It  also  explains  most  naturally  why  they  spent  so  much 
time  in  those  early  days  in  the  temple  precincts  and  why  the  belief  in 
the  second  coming  of  Jesus  at  first  occupied  a  central  place  in  their 
thought  and  life.  It  was  easy  for  men  who  had  just  had  visions  of 
their  risen  and  glorified  Master  to  believe  that  he  might  at  any  moment 
appear  in  the  heavens  to  proclaim  and  establish  his  visible  kingdom 
on  earth  and  to  forget  that  he  had  declared  that  the  Kingdom  of  God 
was  not  to  come  with  observation  but  that  it  is  within  the  hearts  of  his 
followers  (Luke  1721). 

A  third  and  powerful  motive  impelling  the  disciples  to  go  back  to 
Jerusalem  was  their  Master's  own  experience  and  example.  His  min- 
istry had  made  tragically  clear  the  limitations  of  the  Galilean  field. 
His  supreme  courage  and  determination  in  going  up  to  Jerusalem,  even 
though  well  aware  of  the  deadly  perils  that  lurked  there,  were  at  last 
appreciated  by  his  disciples  in  their  true  perspective.  Now  his  task  was 
theirs.  Strait  though  the  way  be,  they  felt  compelled  to  walk  it. 
Only  at  Jerusalem  could  they  touch  the  heart  of  their  nation  and  bear 
witness  most  effectually  to  the  work,  the  teachings,  and  the  exaltation 
of  their  Master.  Following  his  example,  as  at  Capernaum,  they  aimed 
to  establish  a  perfect  brotherhood  or  community  which  would  exem- 
plify the  principles  of  life  that  he  had  laid  down  and  furnish  the  leaven 
needed  to  transform  their  nation.  Thus  their  vision  of  their  risen 
Master  and  the  duty  of  announcing  it  to  their  nation,  their  expectation 
that  he  would  speedily  appear  in  the  temple  to  inaugurate  his  mes- 
sianic rule,  and  their  obligation  to  establish  at  the  historic  place  chosen 
by  Jesus  himself  a  miniature  kingdom  of  God  on  earth  were  forces 
which  drew  his  followers  irresistibly  to  Jerusalem. 

25 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

II.  The  Choice  of  a  Successor  to  Judas.  The  consciousness  of 
a  great  mission  was  evidently  strong  in  the  minds  of  the  disciples  who 
rallied  at  Jerusalem  within  less  than  a  month  and  a  half  after  Jesus' 
crucifixion.  A  common  purpose  united  them:  it  was  to  make  clear 
to  all  members  of  their  race  that  he  was  indeed  the  promised  Messiah 
and  that  his  messiahship  had  been  attested  not  merely  by  his  wondrous 
words  and  deeds  while  on  earth  but  by  the  repeated  visions  of  him  as 
their  risen  and  glorified  Lord.  This  was  evidently  the  reason  why 
they  took  steps  to  fill  at  once  the  place  left  vacant  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Twelve  by  the  renegade  Judas,  who,  the  variant  traditions  preserved 
in  Matthew  and  Acts  declare,  had  meantime  met  with  a  violent  death. 
As  far  as  the  disciples  were  concerned,  he  had  forfeited  his  life  in  the 
unique  brotherhood  the  moment  he  betrayed  their  Master.  The  de- 
mand now  was  for  one  who  had  not  only  associated  personally  with 
Jesus,  and  so  was  familiar  with  his  words  and  deeds,  but  was  also  a 
witness  to  his  resurrection.  This  requirement  also  suggests  the  prim- 
itive definition  of  the  term  apostle,  which  was  later  applied  to  cer- 
tain missionaries,  like  Paul,  who  were  not  included  in  the  Twelve. 
Peter's  speech  on  this  occasion,  as  recorded  in  Acts,  makes  pathetically 
clear  the  perplexity  of  the  disciples,  suddenly  deprived  of  the  author- 
itative leadership  of  their  Master,  and  the  simple  faith  with  which  in 
their  extremity  they  turned  to  the  Old  Testament  scriptures  for  gui- 
dance. Any  passage,  which  on  its  surface  seemed  to  throw  light  on 
their  present  problems,  quite  regardless  of  its  original  meaning  or  ap- 
plication, was  accepted  as  a  definite  guide  or  prediction.  For  example, 
in  the  original  of  Peter's  first  quotation  (from  Psalms  6925),  the  psalmist 
evidently  had  his  many  enemies  in  mind  and  prayed  that  their  habita- 
tion might  be  desolate;  but  to  adapt  it  to  the  later  situation  their  is 
changed  to  his  in  Acts  l20. 

Matthias,  who  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill  the  ranks  of  the  Twelve, 
shares  the  complete  obscurity  that  has  engulfed  a  majority  of  the  dis- 
ciples who  were  most  closely  associated  with  Jesus.  One  questions 
whether  the  surprising  paucity  of  references  to  them  in  early  Christian 
literature  is  purely  accidental.  As  a  whole,  the  men  to  whom  Jesus 
intrusted  his  priceless  teachings  and  example  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  gifted  with  marked  ability.  With  the  exception  of  Peter  they 
were  men  of  one  talent.  Peter's  strength  consisted  in  a  simple  straight- 
forwardness and  zeal  rather  than  irv  statesmanship  or  insight.  With 
the  exception  of  Peter,  the  leading  apostles,  Philip,  Stephen,  Barnabas, 
Silas,  Apollos,  and  Paul,  were  enlisted  entirely  outside  the  ranks  of  the 

26 


CHOICE  OF  A  SUCCESSOR  TO  JUDAS 

Twelve.  The  ultimate  success  of  Jesus'  work  came  not  from  the 
ability  of  his  immediate  followers  but  from  the  invincible  power  of 
his  personality  and  teachings.  Moreover,  "the  advance  was  not  the 
result  of  design,  but  of  the  inherent  universality  of  the  new  religion. 
It  passed  on  from  race  to  race  by  channels  of  its  own  making,  and 
broke,  with  a  living  power,  through  every  restriction  which  men  had 
placed  upon  it." 

It  is  also  important  to  note  that  among  the  first  to  rally  at  Jerusalem 
were  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  and  his  brothers.  Paul  alone  of  all  the 
New  Testament  writers  gives  any  hint  as  to  how  the  immediate  mem- 
bers of  Jesus'  family  were  transformed  into  devoted  followers  in  the  few 
brief  days  that  intervened  between  his  death  and  the  gathering  of  his 
disciples  at  Jerusalem.  Paul  in  his  account  of  the  resurrection  appear- 
ances states  (I  Cor.  151"8)  that  after  "Jesus  had  appeared  to  Peter,  to 
the  Twelve,  and  to  upward  of  five  hundred  Christian  brothers  at  once, 
he  appeared  to  James."  This  James  was  beyond  reasonable  doubt  the 
brother  of  Jesus  who  later  became  the  head  of  the  Jerusalem  church. 
The  evident  importance  that  Paul  attributes  to  James's  vision  is  sig- 
nificant. The  order  perhaps  implies  a  certain  causal  relation  between 
the  visions  of  the  older  disciples  and  that  which  later  came  to  James. 
In  the  absence  of  detailed  records  it  is  yet  possible  to  supply  the  missing 
links.  Up  to  the  time  of  Jesus'  crucifixion  James  did  not  believe  that 
his  brother  was  the  promised  Messiah.  Therefore  his  conversion  and 
absolute  conviction  that  Jesus  was  the  fulfilment  of  Israel's  hopes  and 
that  the  grave  could  not  hold  him  must  have  made  a  profound  impres- 
sion on  the  other  members  of  his  family.  Their  presence  among  the 
disciples  who  gathered  at  Jerusalem  indicates  that  at  last  even  those 
of  his  own  household  appreciated  his  uniqueness. 

III.  The  Story  of  the  Day  of  Pentecost.  Effects  point  back 
unmistakably  to  corresponding  causes.  The  later  history  of  Chris- 
tianity is  in  itself  convincing  evidence  that  the  day  of  Pentecost  was 
the  occasion  of  a  tremendous  spiritual  experience.  The  memory  of 
Jesus'  words,  of  his  unquenchable  hope,  and  of  his  calmness  in  the 
presence  of  death  were  all  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  multitudes.  Time 
and  meditation  had  given  them  a  perspective  that  enabled  them  to 
appreciate  him  as  never  before.  News  of  the  remarkable  experiences 
that  had  come  to  his  disciples  had  spread  already  among  the  thronging 
pilgrims.  Among  the  disciples  themselves  the  first  dejection  had  been 
followed  by  a  joyous  reaction  characterized  by  intense  religious  emo- 
tion.   On  the  day  of  Pentecost  this  pent-up  feeling  broke  out  into  an 

27 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

irresistible  wave  of  spiritual  enthusiasm  that  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  world-wide  Christian  missionary  movement.  The  story  in  Acts  2 
represents  the  first-century  memory  and  interpretation  of  this  event. 
Like  most  of  the  biblical  narratives,  which  record  the  epoch-making 
moments  in  the  development  of  human  faith,  the  original  account 
has  apparently  been  supplemented  by  later  additions  intended  to 
emphasize  its  divine  character  and  significance. 

Fortunately  it  bears  on  its  face  the  evidences  of  its  growth,  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  distinguish  the  original  historical  nucleus  which  lies 
back  of  it.  The  jeers  of  the  bystanders  who  heard  the  cries  of  the 
assembled  disciples,  "They  are  brimful  of  new  wine!"  suggest  that 
what  prompted  their  criticism  was  some  form  of  religious  ecstasy  rather 
than  coherent  addresses  delivered  in  various  languages.  This  inference 
regarding  the  historical  fact  underlying  the  story  of  Pentecost  is  con- 
firmed by  Peter's  speech,  in  which  he  explains  the  remarkable  behavior 
of  the  disciples  as  a  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  of  the  prophet  Joel  in 
which  there  is  no  suggestion  of  speaking  in  foreign  languages.  It  is 
clear  also  in  the  latter  part  of  the  narrative  that  what  converted  the 
multitudes  was  not  miracles  nor  divine  signs  but  Peter's  calm,  logical, 
convincing  sermon. 

In  its  present  form  three  elements  are  traceable  which  apparently 
were  not  found  in  the  original  account  of  the  event:  (1)  The  sound  from 
heaven  like  a  violent  rushing  blast  of  wind  which  filled  the  whole  house 
where  the  disciples  were  seated;  (2)  the  tongues  as  of  fire  which  ap- 
peared distributed  among  them  with  one  resting  upon  the  head  of  each; 
and  (3)  their  speaking  with  foreign  tongues  so  that  their  words  were 
clearly  intelligible  to  the  pilgrims  present  from  the  various  lands  of 
the  dispersion.  The  Bible  and  contemporary  Jewish  literature  contain 
certain  suggestive  analogies  which  go  far  to  explain  the  presence  of 
these  secondary  elements  in  this  nativity  story  of  the  Christian  church. 
The  subsequent  narrative  of  Acts  2  implies  that  the  sound  like  a  violent 
rushing  blast  of  wind,  which  filled  the  whole  house,  was  the  mingled 
ecstatic  shouts  and  cries  of  the  disciples  upon  whose  waiting  hearts 
the  divine  Spirit  from  heaven  had  breathed.  The  same  dramatic 
mode  of  description  recurs  in  431.  In  the  mind  of  the  one  who  has  given 
us  this  narrative  in  its  present  form,  the  analogies  between  the  giving 
of  the  law  at  Sinai  and  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  Pentecost 
were  very  close.  In  the  late  priestly  account  of  the  scene  at  Sinai  we 
read:  "As  Moses  came  down  from  the  mount  he  did  not  know  that  the 
skin  of  his  face  was  emitting  rays  of  light  because  Jehovah  had  been 

28 


STORY  OF  THE  DAY  OF  PENTECOST 

speaking  with  him"  (Ex.  S4P).  Just  as  the  divine  light  shining  in 
the  face  of  Jesus  at  his  transfiguration  seemed  to  transfuse  and  trans- 
form all  about  him,  so  Acts  2  suggests  that  the  joy  and  courage  which 
filled  the  faces  of  the  disciples  appeared  to  rest  like  a  divine  radiance 
upon  them.  The  statement  that  the  disciples  spoke  in  foreign  tongues 
was  either  part  of  the  Christian  tradition  or  else  is  due  to  the  editor's 
desire  to  picture  the  event  in  keeping  with  its  larger  historic  signif- 
icance. The  story  is  apparently  a  reflection  of  the  current  rabbinical 
tradition  of  the  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinai,  which  states  that  the  voice 
of  God  proclaimed  the  law  in  the  seventy  different  languages  that 
represented  all  the  then  known  races  of  the  earth.  Back  of  this  late 
account  of  the  pentecostal  experience  lies  the  profound  fact  that  the 
language  of  the  emotions  is  intelligible  alike  to  men  of  all  races  and 
tongues.  Furthermore,  Christianity  from  the  first  appealed  even 
more  strongly  to  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion — "Parthians,  Medes,  and 
Elamites" — who  had  returned  as  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  than  to  those 
of  Palestine.  It  was  this  universal  quality  in  Christianity  that  most 
interested  the  author  of  Acts  1-15  and  he  has  dramatically  set  it 
forth  at  the  beginning  of  his  history. 

IV.  The  Coming  of  the  Spirit.  Interpreting  the  secondary  ele- 
ments according  to  their  deeper  spiritual  significance,  the  historical 
nucleus  that  remains  in  the  story  of  Acts  2  furnishes  a  remarkably 
vivid  and  satisfying  record  of  the  epoch-making  experience  that  came 
to  the  Christian  community  at  Pentecost.  It  does  not  represent  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  church,  for  that  existed  at  least  in  germ 
from  the  moment  that  the  disciples  reassembled  at  Jerusalem.  Its 
separation  from  Judaism  and  its  independent  existence  still  lay  in  the 
future.  The  memorable  day  of  Pentecost  marked  for  the  Christian 
community  a  new  consciousness  of  direct  divine  guidance.  It  also 
demonstrated  the  universality  and  potency  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus. 

Modern  religious  psychology  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  this 
dramatic  story.  The  feast  of  Pentecost  had  doubtless  brought  to 
Jerusalem  many  followers  and  sympathetic  hearers  of  Jesus.  The  re- 
telling of  the  visions  which  many  of  them  had  had  of  the  risen  Christ 
undoubtedly  strengthened  the  faith  and  kindled  the  religious  en- 
thusiasm of  all.  The  feast  of  Pentecost  also  recalled  the  never-to-be- 
forgotten  events  of  the  feast  of  the  Passover  only  fifty  days  before. 
These  national  feasts  during  Jesus'  ministry  had  offered  rare  opportu- 
nity for  the  presentation  of  his  teachings,  and  the  influence  of  the  ex- 
ample of  their  Master  on  this  memorable  occasion  must  have  been 

29 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

strongly  felt  by  his  disciples.  It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  a 
divine  enthusiasm  seized  them — an  enthusiasm  which  henceforth  for  a 
generation  at  least  characterized  the  life  of  the  various  Christian  com- 
munities scattered  throughout  the  Roman  world.  Paul  has  vividly 
described  its  manifestations  in  I  Corinthians  14.  He  found  it  necessary 
at  a  later  period  to  urge  the  Corinthian  Christians,  when  the  impulse 
seized  them  to  speak  with  tongues,  to  "let  two  or  at  the  most  three  speak 
at  one  time.  Also  to  let  some  one  interpret.  If  there  is  no  interpreter, 
let  the  speaker  keep  quiet  in  church  and  speak  to  himself  and  God." 
He  also  sought  to  guard  the  early  Christians  from  the  charge  which 
was  originally  flung  at  them  by  the  sneering  Jewish  multitudes  at  Jeru- 
salem, when  he  declared  that  "if  at  a  gathering  of  the  whole  church 
everybody  speaks  with  tongues,  and  if  outsiders  and  unbelievers  come 
in,  will  they  not  say,  'You  are  insane'  ?  "  The  phenomenon  was  a 
familiar  one  in  the  ancient  Oriental  world.  Saul,  after  his  memorable 
interview  with  Samuel,  falling  in  with  a  group  of  the  sons  of  the 
prophets,  was  seized  by  the  same  divine  enthusiasm.  It  appears  to 
have  been  exceedingly  common  in  the  primitive  guilds  of  the  prophets. 
It  is  not  without  close  analogies  in  the  revivalistic  services  of  modern 
times.  Back  of  this  experience  lies  the  firmly  established  Jewish 
belief  that  the  Spirit  of  God  the  Holy  One,  or,  as  it  is^designated  in 
later  Christian  times,  the  Holy  Spirit,  took  possession  of  certain  men 
and  women  of  open  minds  and  directed  their  thoughts,  their  feelings, 
their  words,  and  their  very  acts.  Practically  every  extraordinary 
action  or  event  not  explained  by  ordinary  causes  was  attributed  to 
this  direct  divine  influence.  Jesus  himself  declared  that  by  the  Spirit 
of  God  he  was  able  to  perform  miracles,  and  he  appears  to  have  quietly 
assumed  that  all  that  he  did  and  accomplished  was  by  means  of  the 
same  divine  power  working  through  him.  The  Spirit  of  God  in  He- 
brew and  early  Christian  thought  was  his  divine  power  or  personality, 
active  in  nature,  in  human  history,  or  working  through  the  minds,  the 
feelings,  and  the  natures  of  his  devoted  followers.  The  great  revival- 
istic experience  at  Pentecost  was,  therefore,  not  the  first  in  Israel's 
history.  The  unique  element  appears  to  have  been  the  intensity  with 
which  it  affected  the  assembled  disciples,  and  the  fact  that  practically 
all  of  them  felt  its  mysterious  influence.  It  was  not  strange  that  the 
simple  followers  of  Jesus  lacked  the  vocabulary  and  articulate  means  of 
expressing  the  new  and  profound  emotions  of  joy  and  gratitude  and 
loyalty  which  filled  their  souls,  and  that  they  voiced  them  in  inarticu- 
late cries  which,  when  heard  from  afar,  gave  the  impression  of  a  mighty, 

30 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

rushing  wind,  and  evoked  from  bystanders  the  sneering  words:  "These 
men  are  brimful  of  new  wine!" 

V.  Peter's  Memorable  Sermon.  The  amazement  and  sneers  of 
the  multitude  gave  Peter,  the  spokesman  of  the  disciples,  his  oppor- 
tunity. Throughout  his  brief  address,  which  reflects  the  beliefs  and 
ideas  which  were  in  the  forefront  at  the  beginning  rather  than  at  the 
end  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  when  the  book  of  Acts  was  written,  there  run 
two  parallel  lines  of  argument  and  evidence.  The  one  is  drawn  from 
Old  Testament  prophecy;  the  other  is  based  on  the  actual  experience 
of  Peter  and  of  the  disciples  whom  he  represented.  Speaking  to  Jews, 
he  starts  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Old  Testament  and  singles  out 
the  memorable  prediction  of  the  outpouring  of  Jehovah's  Spirit  upon 
all  classes  in  the  nation,  which  is  found  in  Joel  228"32a.  He  follows  the 
Greek  translation,  quoting  rather  freely  and  supplying  the  words  "last 
days"  in  order  to  make  complete  the  application  of  the  ancient  pre- 
diction to  the  events  of  the  day  of  Pentecost.  The  latter  part  of  the 
quotation  shows  how  directly  the  disciples  from  the  first  drew  their 
apocalyptic  hopes  from  these  Old  Testament  predictions.  Then  fol- 
lows a  remarkably  vigorous  epitome  of  Jesus'  life  and  death  condensed 
into  one  sentence.  Peter's  statement,  "was  delivered  up  in  accordance 
with  God's  settled  purpose  and  foreknowledge,"  implies  that,  as  at 
later  times,  he  had  in  mind  the  familiar  portrait  of  the  suffering  servant 
of  Jehovah  in  Isaiah  53.  He,  in  common  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
writers  of  his  age,  regarded  David  as  the  author  of  all  the  Psalms. 
In  his  quotation  from  Psalm  168"11,  and  in  his  interpretation  of  the 
promise, 

Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  the  grave, 
Nor  let  thy  holy  one  see  corruption, 

the  logical  application  depends  not  only  upon  the  tradition  of  Davidic 
authorship,  but  also  upon  the  Greek  version,  which  he  follows  and 
which  differs  widely  from  the  Hebrew: 

Thou  wilt  not  forsake  me  to  Sheol, 

Nor  suffer  thy  faithful  one  to  see  the  grave. 

Similarly  the  apostle,  in  keeping  with  the  current  rabbinical  methods 
of  Old  Testament  interpretation,  cites  the  first  verse  of  Psalm  110 
(which  is  probably   a  Maccabean  poem  originally  connected  with 

31 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  JERUSALEM  COMMUNITY 

Simon  the  Hasmonean)  as  a  prediction  of  Jesus'  resurrection.  In  the 
light  of  our  modern  historical  methods  of  interpretation  the  logic  may- 
be faulty,  but  that  does  not  invalidate  Peter's  underlying  argument, 
for  this  is  but  the  way  in  which  he  sought  to  interpret  his  own  spiritual 
experience  and  that  of  his  fellow  disciples.  While  Jesus  was  with 
them  they  had  felt  the  divine  inspiration  of  his  personality  and  teach- 
ings. Even  when  death  had  taken  him  from  them,  the  vivid  conscious- 
ness of  that  same  personality  and  presence  had  impelled  them  to  come 
up  to  Jerusalem  and  face  persecution.  Now,  not  only  in  their  own 
individual  experiences  but  in  a  most  startling  and  unmistakable  manner 
they  and  the  multitude  which  they  addressed  had  seen  with  their  own 
eyes  the  evidences  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

To  this  argument  of  fact  Peter  added  a  strong  appeal  to  the  multi- 
tude: "Repent  and  be  baptized  every  one  of  you,"  that  "you  may  then 
receive  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  Contrition,  confession,  and  moral 
cleansing — these  are  the  preliminary  steps  declared  to  be  absolutely 
essential  by  the  early  prophets  and  John  the  Baptist,  as  well  as  by 
Jesus  and  his  apostles,  if  the  individual  would  enter  into  intimate 
spiritual  relations  with  God.  In  the  preaching  of  Peter  "the  name  of 
Jesus,"  which  stands  for  his  character,  his  spirit,  and  his  teachings, 
has  become  that  which  inspires  contrition  and  public  confession  and 
gives  the  assurance  of  moral  cleansing  and  the  abounding  joy  and 
spiritual  exaltation  that  made  the  day  of  Pentecost  forever  memorable. 
It  also  explains  why  a  large  number,  possibly  somewhat  magnified,  were 
then  added  to  the  Christian  brotherhood. 

VI.  The  Faith  of  the  Early  Christian  Believers.  Peter's 
speech,  supplemented  by  those  which  follow  in  Acts,  reveals  the  chief 
elements  in  the  faith  of  the  early  Christian  believers.  Its  fixed  foun- 
dation was  their  personal  acquaintance  and  association  with  Jesus 
during  his  life  on  earth  and  the  teachings,  the  ideals,  and  the  spirit 
with  which  he  had  filled  their  minds.  This  is  the  historical  corner- 
stone upon  which  Christianity  rests  and  without  which  it  would  be, 
like  most  other  religions,  but  a  system  of  philosophical  speculations  or 
a  body  of  ethical  teachings.  The  faith  of  the  early  believers  was  in- 
evitably and  radically  moulded  by  the  current  hopes  of  their  race  and 
the  predictions  of  their  prophets.  It  had  been  so  even  while  Jesus  was 
with  them  to  interpret  this  ancient  heritage;  it  was  naturally  ever 
more  so  when  they  ceased  to  hear  his  audible  voice.  All  the  great 
early  teachers  of  their  race  had  taught  them  that  their  varied  experi- 
ences as  a  nation  were  but  a  preparation  for  a  glorious  destiny  that 

32 


BELIEF  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIANS 

awaited  them  and  that  a  Messiah,  chosen  and  empowered  by  God,  was 
to  be  the  chief  agent  in  realizing  this  divine  purpose  and  in  inaugurating 
the  new  era  in  human  history.  Naturally  and  rightly  they  identified 
Jesus  as  the  promised  Messiah  or  Christ.  This  identification  at  once 
broadened  their  conception  of  the  significance  of  his  personality  and 
work.  Hitherto  they  had  known  him  simply  as  their  personal  teacher 
and  friend  and  master;  now  the  historic  term  Messiah,  with  its  wealth 
of  associations,  emphasized  his  relation  to  their  race  and  to  other  races. 
At  the  same  time  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  as  well  as  their  own  interpre- 
tation of  their  ancient  scriptures,  led  them  to  the  conclusion  that  they, 
the  disciples  of  the  Nazarene,  were  the  faithful  remnant,  the  true 
Israel.  Hence  they  were  the  heirs  of  all  the  Old  Testament  promises. 
Not  only  were  they  to  have  a  central  place  in  the  new  and  divine 
order,  that  they  believed  would  speedily  and  miraculously  be  estab- 
lished, but  they  had  an  all-important  role  in  preparing  the  way  for  its 
consummation.  All  their  inherited  beliefs  and  their  past  and  present 
experiences  focused  their  attention  upon  Jesus  as  the  central  figure 
in  the  new  divine  order.  Now  they  saw  him  through  their  spiritual 
vision,  living  and  exalted,  not  identical  with  God  but  commissioned  by 
him  to  establish  this  new  order.  Hence  they  called  him  not  only 
Messiah  but  also  Lord.  "Jesus  is  Lord"  was  the  baptismal  formula  of 
the  early  Christian  church.  Paul  declares  in  I  Corinthians  86:  "For  us 
there  is  one  Lord,  Jesus  Christ."  On  the  lips  of  the  early  believers  the 
term  Lord  had  a  far  more  personal  and  intimate  meaning  than  Messiah 
or  Christ.  It  corresponded  to  the  older  term  Master,  interpreted  in  the 
light  of  the  larger  perspective  now  attained  by  his  disciples.  It  sug- 
gested a  broader  yet  closer  personal  relation  between  him  and  his  de- 
voted followers.  It  was  a  term  not  only  of  adoration  but  of  devotion 
and  fealty.  It  meant  the  acceptance  of  his  teachings  and  ideals  as  the 
absolute  rule  of  life  and  his  Spirit  as  the  ever-present  interpreter  and 
guide.  The  first  great  task,  therefore,  of  his  followers  was,  as  Peter 
declares,  to  "let  all  the  house  of  Israel  know  beyond  doubt  that  God 
hath  made  him  both  Lord  and  Christ." 


33 


§CXLVn.     THE  [LIFE   OF  THE  PRIMITIVE   CHRISTIAN 
COMMUNITY 

Intro-  The  believers  all  kept  together  and  shared  all  things  with 
Son"  one  another;  and  they  would  sell  their  possessions  and  goods 
<jaiiyf  and  distribute  the  proceeds  to  all  according  as  each  man 
thlbe-  had  need.  Daily  with  one  accord  they  resorted  to  the 
?ActsS  temple  and  broke  bread  in  their  own  homes.  They  ate  their 
z"-47)  food  with  gladness  and  single-heartedness,  praising  God, 
and  were  well  regarded  by  all  the  people.  The  Lord  also 
added  daily  to  their  number  those  who  were  being  saved. 
The  Now  Peter  and  John  were  going  up  to  the  temple  for  the 

th£eof  nour  of  prayer  at  three  in  the  afternoon,  when  a  certain 
Jjgj*      man  who  had  been  lame  from  birth  was  carried  past,  whom 
(31-8)      they  used  to  lay  daily  at  what  is  called  the  Beautiful  Gate 
of  the  temple  to  ask  alms  from  those  who  entered  the  tem- 
ple.   When  he  saw  that  Peter  and  John  were  about  to 
enter  the  temple,  he  asked  them  for  alms.    But  Peter 
looked  at  him  intently,  as  did  John  also,  and  said  to  him, 
Look  at  us.    And  when  he  gave  heed  to  them,  expecting 
to  receive  something  from  them,  Peter  said,  I  have  neither 
silver  nor  gold  but  what  I  have  I  give  to  you.    In  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ  the  Nazarene,  walk !    Then  seizing  him  by 
the  right  hand  he  raised  him  up.    Instantly  his  feet  and 
ankles  became  strong  and  he  leaped  upright  and  walked 
about,  and  went  with  them  into  the  temple,  walking,  leap- 
ing, and  praising  God. 
Effect        And  all  the  people  saw  him  walking  about  and  praising 
the11      G°d-    And  when  they  recognized  that  this  was  the  man 
people    who  used  to  sit  and  beg  at  the  Beautiful  Gate  of  the  temple, 
they  were  filled  with  awe  and  amazement  at  what  had  be- 
fallen him.    And  while  he  still  clung  to  Peter  and  John,  all 
the  people  rushed  awe-struck  to  them  in  what  was  called 
Solomon's  Porch. 
Peter's       But  when  Peter  saw  this  he  spoke  to  the  people:  Men 
2^    of  Israel,  why  are  you  filled  with  awe  at  this  ?    Or  why  do 

nnScte  you  stare  at  us  as  tf  we  had  mado  nim  walk  by  any  power 

(i2-i6)      or  piety  of  our  own?    The  God  of  Abraham  and  the  God 

of  Isaac  and  the  God  of  Jacob,  the  God  of  our  fathers, 

34 


PETER'S  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  MIRACLE 

hath  glorified  Jesus  his  servant,  whom  you  delivered  up 
and  disowned  before  Pilate,  even  though  Pilate  had  de- 
cided to  release  him.  But  you  disowned  the  Holy  and 
Just  One,  and  you  asked  as  a  favor  the  release  of  a  man 
who  was  a  murderer;  but  the  leader  in  the  way  of  life  you 
put  to  death.  But  God  raised  him  from  the  dead,  as  we 
ourselves  can  bear  witness.  Moreover,  through  faith  in 
his  name,  his  name  has  given  strength  to  this  man  whom 
you  see  and  know;  and  it  is  the  faith  which  he  inspires  that 
has  made  this  man  sound  and  strong  in  the  presence  of 
you  all. 

Now  I  know,  brothers,  that  you  have  acted  in  ignorance,  Appeal 
as  have  also  your  rulers;  but  it  is  in  this  way  that  God  hath  %^fe 
fulfilled  the  promises  which  he  made  by  the  mouth  of  the  <»  ent 
prophets  that  his  Christ  would  suffer.    Repent  therefore  anden 
and  turn  that  your  sins  may  be  blotted  out,  in  order  that  jgg* 
times  of  revival  may  come  from  the  Lord,  and  that  he  may  (1728) 
send  to  you  Jesus  the  Christ,  appointed  beforehand,  whom 
heaven  must  receive  until  the  times  of  the  restoration  of 
which  God  hath  spoken  from  of  old  by  the  lips  of  his  holy 
prophets.    Moses  indeed  said,  *  The  Lord  our  God  will 
raise  up  a  prophet  for  you  from  among  your  brothers,  as  he 
raised  me.    You  must  listen  to  whatever  he  may  say  to 
you;  any  soul  that  will  not  listen  to  this  prophet  shall  be 
utterly  destroyed  from  among  the  people.'    Yea,  all  the 
prophets  who  have  spoken  since  Samuel  and  his  succes- 
sors have  also  announced  these  days.    You  indeed  are  the 
sons  of  the  prophets  and  of  the  covenant  which  God  made 
with  your  fathers  when  he  said  to  Abraham,  'All  the  fam- 
ilies of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed  through  your  offspring.' 
It  was  for  you  first  that  God  raised  up  his  servant  and  sent 
him  to  bless  you  by  turning  each  of  you  from  your  wicked 
deeds. 

While  they  were  speaking  to  the  people,  the  priests  and  Arrest 
the  commander  of  the  temple  and  the  Sadducees  came  upon  apos-e 
them,  being  greatly  displeased  because  they  taught  the  *jj»^ 
people  and  proclaimed  in  the  case  of  Jesus  the  resurrection 
from  the  dead. 

The  next  morning  a  meeting  was  held  in  Jerusalem  of 
their  rulers,  elders,  and  scribes,  at  which  were  the  high 

35 


THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIAN  COMMUNITY 

Their     priest  Annas,  Caiaphas,  John,  Alexander,  and  all  the  mem- 

Sd       bers  of  the  high  priest's  family.    Placing  the  apostles  in 

^?5nse  ^ie":  n^dst,  they  inquired,  By  what  power  and  in  whose 

name  have  you  done  this?    Then  Peter,  filled  with  the 

Holy  Spirit,  said  to  them:  Rulers  of  the  people  and  elders 

of  Israel,  if  we  are  being  examined  to-day  for  a  good  act 

done  to  a  man  helplessly  lame,  as  to  how  this  man  was 

cured,  be  it  known  to  you  all,  and  to  all  the  people  of  Israel, 

that  through  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  the  Nazarene,  whom 

you  crucified  but  whom  God  hath  raised  from  the  dead — 

through  that  name  this  man  stands  before  you  perfectly 

whole.    This  Jesus  is  the  stone  despised  by  you  builders 

which  has  become  the  head  of  the  corner.    And  in  none 

other  is  there  salvation :  for  neither  is  there  any  other  name 

under  heaven,  that  has  been  given  among  men,  through 

which  we  may  be  saved. 

Be-  Now,  when  they  saw  the  boldness  of  Peter  and  John 

oftSe     a*1**  perceived  that  they  were  uncultured  and  illiterate  men, 

apos-     they  were  astonished;  they  also  recognized  that  they  had 

(1^.21.  been  companions  with  Jesus.    But,  seeing  the  man  who 

B)         had  been  healed  standing  beside  them,  they  had  nothing 

to  say  in  reply.    But  when  they  had  threatened  them  still 

further,  they  let  them  go,  being  unable  to  find  any  way  of 

punishing  them  on  account  of  the  people,  for  everybody  was 

glorifying  God  over  what  had  happened;  for  the  man  was 

over  forty  years  of  age  on  whom  this  miracle  of  healing  had 

been  performed. 

prayer       Now,  when  they  were  released,  the  disciples  went  to 

$!,§£    their  friends  and  reported  what  the  high  priest  and  elders 

tian       had  said.    And  on  hearing  this,  these  all  lifted  up  their 


com 


munity  voices  to  God  and  said,  O  Sovereign  Lord,  thou  art  he  who 
^j..  made  heaven  and  earth  and  sea  and  all  that  in  them  is, 
(fe26.2»,  wk°  sa^  to  our  others  by  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the 
30)   '   '  mouth  of  David  thy  servant: 

*  Why  did  the  Gentiles  rage, 
And  the  peoples  form  futile  plans? 
The  kings  of  the  earth  set  themselves  in  array, 
And  the  rulers  assemble  together 
Against  the  Lord  and  his  Christ., 
36 


AN  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PRAYER 

And  now,  O  Lord,  consider  their  threats  and  grant  that  thy 
servants  may  with  all  fearlessness  speak  thy  word,  when 
thy  hand  is  stretched  out  to  heal  and  to  perform  miracles 
and  wonders  by  the  name  of  thy  holy  servant  Jesus. 

And  while  they  were  praying  the  place  where  they  were  The 
was  shaken,  and  they  were  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit  and  %£££& 
continued  speaking  the  word  of  God  fearlessly.    And  the  <31,33) 
apostles  gave  their  testimony  to  the  resurrection  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  with  great  power,  and  much  grace  was  upon 
them  all. 

Now  in  the  multitude  of  the  believers  there  was  but  one  Fra- 
heart  and  soul;  not  one  of  them  called  any  of  the  things  jk™g* 
which  he  possessed  his  personal  property,  but  they  shared  j&  the 
all  they  had  with  one  another.    There  was  not  a  needy  per-  tian 
son  among  them,  for  those  who  owned  land  or  houses  sold  JSSlty 
them  and  brought  the  proceeds  of  the  things  which  were  £?••*■ 
sold  and  laid  them  at  the  apostles'  feet.    It  was  then  dis- 
tributed to  every  one  according  as  eacfr  individual  had  need. 
Thus  Joseph,  who  was  surnamed  by  the  apostles  Barnabas 
or,  as  it  may  be  interpreted,  *  Son  of  encouragement,'  a 
Levite,  a  native  of  Cyprus,  sold  a  farm  belonging  to  him 
and  brought  the  money  and  placed  it  at  the  apostles'  feet. 

But  a  certain  man  by  the  name  of  Ananias  who,  with  his  Decep- 
wife  Sapphira,  had  sold  some  property,  with  her  connivance  An^_of 
kept  back  part  of  the  price  and  brought  only  a  part  of  it  to  ^ 
lay  at  the  apostles'  feet.    Ananias,  said  Peter,  why  has  !ap- 
Satan  filled  your  heart  that  you  should  try  to  deceive  the  ^.^ 
Holy  Spirit  and  keep  back  part  of  the  price  of  the  land? 
While  the  land  remained  unsold  was  it  not  your  own?    And 
even  after  it  was  sold  was  it  not  at  your  disposal?    How 
is  it  that  you  have  planned  this  thing  in  your  heart?    You 
have  not  lied  to  man  but  to  God.    When  Ananias  heard 
these  words  he  fell  down  and  expired ;  and  great  fear  came 
upon  all  who  heard  it.    And  the  younger  men  arose,  wrapped 
up  the  body,  and  carried  it  away  to  be  buried.     After  an 
interval  of  about  three  hours,  his  wife  came  in,  not  knowing 
what  had  taken  place.    Tell  me,  said  Peter  to  her,  did  you 
sell  the  land  for  such  and  such  a  sum?    Yes,  she  said,  mat 
was  the  sum.    But  Peter  said  to  her,  How  was  it  that  you 
two  could  agree  together  to  test  the  Lord's  Spirit?    Behold 

37 


(12-16) 


THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIAN  COMMUNITY 

the  footsteps  of  those  who  have  buried  your  husband! 
They  are  at  the  door  and  will  carry  you  out!  Instantly  she 
fell  down  at  his  feet  and  expired.  And  the  young  men 
came  in  and  found  her  dead,  and  they  carried  her  out  and 
buried  her  beside  her  husband.  And  great  awe  came  over 
the  whole  church  and  over  all  who  heard  about  these  things. 
Effect  Many  miracles  and  wonders  were  performed  among  the 
?hen  people  by  the  apostles,  and  they  were  all  with  one  accord 
people  in  Solomon's  Porch.  But,  although  the  people  extolled 
them,  none  of  the  rest  of  the  people  dared  join  them.  But 
instead  multitudes  of  both  men  and  women  who  believed 
in  the  Lord  were  brought  in,  so  that  they  even  carried  in- 
valids out  into  the  streets  and  laid  them  on  beds  and 
mattresses,  that  when  Peter  passed,  his  shadow  at  least 
might  fall  on  some  one  of  them.  Crowds  also  gathered 
from  the  towns  about  Jerusalem,  bringing  invalids  and  peo- 
ple troubled  with  unclean  spirits;  and  all  of  them  were 
healed. 

I.  The  Historical  Record.  The  occasional  secondary  passages  in 
this  section  but  serve  to  bring  out  by  contrast  the  exact  historical 
character  of  the  older  source  here  quoted.  The  general  statements 
regarding  the  life  of  the  Christian  community,  found  in  the  closing 
verses  of  Acts  2,  are  probably  from  Luke's  own  pen.  Verse  45,  in  its 
assertion  that  "they  shared  all  that  they  had  with  one  another,"  an- 
ticipates the  detailed  statement  of  432-514  and  to  a  certain  extent  is  at 
variance  with  the  testimony  of  this  older  and  fuller  source.  The 
fourth  verse  of  chapter  4,  with  its  statement  that  the  Christian  com- 
munity numbered  about  five  thousand,  is  probably  also  an  editorial 
addition,  for  it  breaks  the  close  connection  between  3  and  5.  Verses 
15-20  0f  the  same  chapter  appear  to  be  an  expansional  duplicate  of 
12-14,  2i,  22  Thg  reason  for  the  liberation  of  the  apostles  given  in  21  is 
the  high  priest's  fear  of  a  popular  uprising,  but  in  15-2°  they  are  repre- 
sented as  admitting  the  validity  of  the  miracle  which  had  been 
performed  in  the  temple.  Verses 27  and  28  also  break  the  close  connec- 
tion between  26  and  29,  and  have  all  the  characteristics  of  an  explana- 
tory clause.  Otherwise  the  material  in  this  section  appears  to  have 
been  taken  from  the  early  Jerusalem-Csesarean  source.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  historical  value  in  portraying  not  only  the  life  of  the  primitive 
Christian  community  but  also  the  faith  of  the  early  disciples,  while 

38 


THE  HISTORICAL  RECORD 

they  still  stood  under  the  direct  influence  of  Jesus'  work  and  teach- 
ings and  had  not  been  fundamentally  influenced  by  Paul's  dominating 
ideas. 

II.  The  Healing  of  the  Lame  Beggar.  The  book  of  Acts  as- 
cribes only  three  definite  miracles  of  healing  to  the  twelve  disciples,  and 
each  of  these  is  associated  with  the  name  of  Peter.  The  gospel  nar- 
ratives state  that  miracles  of  healing  were  performed  by  the  disciples 
during  Jesus'  lifetime,  but  furnish  no  details  beyond  recording  the  case 
of  the  epileptic  (Mark  917"23)  which  had  baffled  them.  Jesus  himself 
appears  to  have  anticipated  that  they  would  carry  on  his  work  of  heal- 
ing. The  Fourth  Gospel  has  expressed  this  conviction  in  the  familiar 
passage:  "He  who  believes  on  me  also  shall  do  the  works  that  I  do,  and 
greater  works  than  these  shall  he  do"  (John  1412).  The  account  of 
Peter's  healing  of  the  lame  man  in  the  temple  is  given  in  great  detail. 
The  situation  suggests  the  experiences  that  reinforced  the  man's  faith. 
Being  a  frequent  visitor  to  the  temple,  he  must  have  often  heard  the 
teachings  and  observed  the  acts  of  healing  performed  by  Jesus.  Also 
the  news  of  the  great  spiritual  experience  which  came  to  the  disciples 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost  must  have  filled  Jerusalem.  The  conditions 
therefore  were  exceedingly  favorable  for  a  startling  act  of  healing. 
The  incident  is  in  every  respect  parallel  to  many  of  the  well-authen- 
ticated gospel  miracles,  except  that  Peter  acted  simply  as  the  agent 
working  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  There  is  every  reason  for  regarding 
the  narrative  as  historical.  The  event  was  also  of  great  importance  in 
extending  the  work  of  the  disciples.  It  was  the  credential  required  by 
the  masses  to  prove  by  the  testimony  of  their  eyes  that  the  Crucified 
One  still  lived.  Peter  was  quick  to  improve  the  unique  opportunity 
thus  offered.  Here  was  the  supreme  answer  to  the  taunts  of  the  people 
that  his  Master  had  died  an  ignominious  death  on  the  cross.  Boldly 
Peter  turns  upon  the  multitude  and  accuses  them  of  being  the  mur- 
derers of  Jesus  whom  he  designates  as  "the  Holy  and  Just  One," 
"God's  servant"  who  had  proved  the  "leader  in  the  way  of  life." 
Each  of  these  designations  is  rich  in  suggestiveness.  The  first  is  an 
echo  of  Isaiah  53  and  anticipates  the  theme  developed  by  Peter  a 
little  later.  The  second  suggests  the  initial  impression  which  Jesus' 
personality  had  made  upon  his  disciples  and  upon  all  who  had  known 
him  personally.  The  third  title,  with  marvellous  insight,  describes 
him  as  the  pioneer,  the  first  to  discover  the  boundless  possibilities  of 
life  and  to  live  it  in  its  fulness.  This  phrase  is  nobly  interpreted  in 
the  Fourth  Gospel  in  the  words  attributed  to  Jesus:  "You  shall  have 

39 


THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIAN  COMMUNITY 

life  and  that  abundantly"  (John  1010).  The  once  helpless  cripple,  who 
now  stood  before  the  multitude  sound  and  strong,  was  a  convincing 
proof  of  Jesus'  power  to  give  not  only  spiritual  but  physical  life  to  those 
whose  faith  enabled  them  to  reach  out  and  receive  it. 

III.  Peter's  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  Prophecies. 
The  words  with  which  Peter  appealed  to  the  multitude  reveal  great 
tact  and,  what  is  more  important,  a  yearning  love  for  them  such  as 
had  filled  the  heart  of  Jesus:  "Brothers,  I  know  that  you  have  acted 
in  ignorance,  as  have  also  your  rulers."  The  implied  distinction  be- 
tween the  responsibility  of  the  common  people  and  of  their  rulers  was 
well  supported  by  the  facts.  Peter's  declaration  that  "God  hath  ful- 
filled the  promises  which  he  made  by  the  mouth  of  the  prophets  that 
his  Christ  would  suffer"  is  one  of  the  many  indications  contained  in 
these  early  records  that  the  disciples  found  the  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  Jesus'  death  in  the  II  Isaiah's  portrait  of  the  suffering  ser- 
vant of  Jehovah.  Peter  reiterated  John  the  Baptist's  call  to  repen- 
tance, but  made  the  motive  not  merely  individual  forgiveness  but  that 
God  might  send  to  them  "Jesus  the  Messiah,  whom  heaven  must  re- 
ceive until  the  times  of  the  restoration  of  which  God  hath  spoken  from 
of  old  by  the  lips  of  his  holy  prophets."  Again  the  impression  is  deep- 
ened that  the  apostles'  firmly  fixed  conviction  of  Jesus'  speedy  second 
coming  to  accomplish  by  supernatural  means  what  he  seemed  to  have  / 
left  undone,  was  derived  not  from  their  Master's  words  but  from  their 
perusal  of  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  under  the  influence  of  the 
current  Jewish  apocalyptic  hopes.  In  Acts  324  Peter  plainly  states 
the  principle  that  guided  the  apostles  in  their  interpretation  of  these 
ancient  scriptures:  "Yea,  all  the  prophets  who  have  spoken  since 
Samuel  and  his  successors  have  announced  these  days."  These  typ- 
ical early  apostolic  sermons  in  the  opening  chapters  of  Acts  illustrate 
their  tendency  to  ignore  the  historical  background  and  the  immediate 
application  of  these  Old  Testament  prophecies  and  to  apply  all,  which 
seemed  apposite,  to  Jesus  and  to  the  age  in  which  they  were  living. 
Their  interpretation,  however,  of  the  meaning  of  Jesus'  work  and 
teaching  to  them  and  to  all  Jews  who  believed  is  of  incomparable  value. 
Peter's  closing  words  in  326  are  the  simplest  and  clearest  statement  of 
primitive  apostolic  faith  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament:  "It  was 
for  you  first  that  God  raised  up  his  servant  and  sent  him  to  bless  you 
by  turning  each  of  you  from  your  wicked  deeds."  Here,  as  in  the 
oldest  gospel  records,  Jesus  is  recognized  to  be  the  personal  Friend  and 
Teacher  and  Saviour  of  men.     His  saving  work  is  done  in  the  lives  of 

40 


PETER'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  PROPHECY 

men  by  delivering  them  from  the  bondage  of  the  evil  habits  and  ideals 
engendered  by  their  past  deeds. 

IV.  Peter's  Defense  before  Jesus'  Murderers.  Acts  is  a  book 
of  striking  contrasts.  The  event  soon  proved  that  "the  disciples  were 
not  above  their  Lord."  The  conspirators  and  leaders  of  the  Jewish 
nation  who  had  plotted  to  encompass  Jesus'  death  now  interrupted 
Peter's  earnest  address.  At  their  head  was  the  commander  of  the 
temple  police,  or  segan,  who  was  the  official  representative  of  the  high- 
priestly  authorities.  It  was  his  duty  to  maintain  order  in  the  temple 
precincts,  and  the  apostle's  bold  words  gave  him  and  the  Sadducees 
whom  he  represented  an  excuse  for  silencing  Peter.  Deeper  than 
their  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  which  Peter  im- 
plicitly taught,  was  probably  their  recognition  that  he  was  the  spokes- 
man of  the  despised  and  crucified  Nazarene.  The  informal  meeting 
which  was  held  the  following  morning  was  in  many  respects  closely 
similar  to  the  preliminary  investigation  of  Jesus  which  these  same 
high-priestly  officials  had  instituted  in  order  to  secure  data  for  a  formal 
charge.  It  was  again  a  packed  tribunal  dominated  by  Annas,  Caiaphas, 
John  (in  the  Western  text  D,  Jonathan),  and  Alexander.  Jonathan  was 
a  son  of  Annas,  as  was  probably  also  Alexander;  at  least  the  narrative 
of  Acts  distinctly  states  that  all  the  members  of  the  high  priest's  family 
were  present.  Peter's  reply  to  their  demand  that  he  explain  by  what 
authority  he  had  performed  the  miracle  was  probably  suggested  by 
Jesus'  reply  to  the  Pharisees  on  a  similar  occasion:  "Is  it  lawful  on  the 
sabbath  day  to  do  good  or  to  do  harm,  to  save  life  or  to  kill  ?  "  (Mark 
31'6.)  Psalm  11822  furnished  Peter  the  figure  with  which  he  proclaimed 
the  power  of  his  risen  Lord:  "This  Jesus  is  the  stone  despised  by  you 
builders  which  has  become  the  head  of  the  corner."  Again  it  is  an 
echo  of  Jesus'  words  recorded  in  Mark  1210.  Peter's  closing  assertion 
anticipates  Paul's  interpretation  of  the  significance  of  Jesus'  person- 
ality and  work.  It  is  probable  that  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  the  name  is  not  used  in  a  magic  sense  but  to  de- 
scribe the  character,  aims,  spirit,  and  methods  of  its  possessor.  Out 
of  the  depths  of  his  own  personal  experience  Peter  declared  that  the 
spirit  and  teachings  which  his  Master  exemplified  present  the  only  way 
in  which  men  of  all  races  and  ages  may  come  into  living  and  personal 
relations  with  their  heavenly  Father  and  attain  the  real  goals  of  all 
living. 

V.  The  Effect  of  the  Release  of  Peter  and  John  upon  the 
Christian  Community.     The  grafting  high  priests  were  naturally 

41 


THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIAN  COMMUNITY 

eager  to  silence  the  disciples  of  the  Nazarene  Teacher  who  had  dared 
publicly  to  condemn  their  corrupt  administration  of  the  temple.  The 
Sadducean  nobles  cared  little  about  questions  of  orthodoxy.  They 
evidently  regarded  the  apostles  as  mad  fanatics,  followers  of  a  Galilean 
Messiah,  who  might  arouse  the  people  unduly,  and  their  aim  was  to 
intimidate  them.  There  was,  however,  in  the  apostles'  teaching  no 
trace  of  disloyalty  to  the  law  or  temple  ritual  or  note  of  sedition,  and 
for  the  moment  they  had  the  approval  of  the  multitude.  Hence  the 
temple  authorities,  who  depended  largely  on  the  support  of  the  mob, 
could  only  let  them  go  free.  To  the  followers  of  Jesus  this  meant  a 
great  victory.  Their  leaders  had  openly  faced  the  murderers  of  Jesus, 
had  borne  testimony  to  their  Master's  resurrection,  and  the  crowds  in 
the  temple  had  upheld  them.  Here  was  another  signal  illustration  of 
their  conviction  that  the  Spirit  of  God  was  working  mightily  in  their 
midst.  The  prayer  in  423~26,  29>  30  may  well  have  come  down  directly 
from  the  early  Christian  community.  It  fits  most  perfectly  its  pres- 
ent historical  setting.  Its  spirit  and  thought  are  characteristic  of  the 
primitive  Christians.  Psalm  21,  2,  with  its  world-wide  vision,  seemed 
none  too  exalted  to  express  their  exultation  and  thanksgiving.  The 
closing  lines  of  the  prayer  breathe  the  spirit  that  actuated  the  early 
Christian  martyrs  and  voice  their  consciousness  of  a  mighty  mission 
as  the  servants  of  God  to  proclaim  the  teachings  and  do  the  great  work 
that  God's  holy  servant  Jesus  had  intrusted  to  them.  As  in  chapter 
2,  Luke  graphically  describes  the  overmastering  ecstasy  which  seized 
them  by  the  statement  that  "the  place  where  they  were  was  shaken 
and  they  were  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit."  This  profound  spiritual 
experience  also  inspired  them  with  new  zeal  and  courage  in  proclaim- 
ing the  divine  truth  intrusted  to  them  and  in  bearing  testimony  to 
Jesus'  resurrection. 

VI.  The  Communistic  Tendencies  of  the  Believers.  The  gen- 
eral statements  at  the  close  of  chapter  2  have  been  popularly  inter- 
preted to  mean  that  the  primitive  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem 
lived  together  on  a  thoroughly  communistic  basis.  Luke  may  have 
wished  to  convey  this  impression.  He  himself  would  probably  have 
commended  such  a  social  organization,  for  his  sympathies,  as  revealed 
in  his  gospel,  are  strongly  communistic;  but  the  popular  interpre- 
tation is  not  borne  out  by  the  older  sources  which  he  has  incorporated 
in  Acts.  These  nowhere  state  that  all  of  the  believers  put  all  of 
their  wealth  in  the  common  treasury.  Instead  it  is  implied  that  those 
who  did  so  wholly  or  in  part  were  highly  commended  for  their  excep- 

42 


COMMUNISTIC  TENDENCIES 

tional  generosity.  Thus  Barnabas,  a  Jew  from  the  Island  of  Cyprus, 
who  claimed  Levitical  descent  and  who  later  became  an  active  apostle, 
sold  a  farm  belonging  to  him  and  turned  the  proceeds  into  the  common 
fund.  The  record  does  not  even  indicate  that  he  sold  all  the  property 
that  he  possessed.  Peter's  words  to  Ananias  also  plainly  and  de- 
cisively indicate  that  no  one  was  under  any  compulsion  to  sell  his  per- 
sonal property  or  to  turn  any  or  all  into  the  apostolic  treasury.  The 
absence  of  any  trace  of  communism  in  the  later  history  of  Palestinian 
Christianity  or  elsewhere  in  the  early  Christian  church,  until  the  alien 
tendencies  toward  asceticism  and  monasticism  gained  a  foothold  within 
it,  substantiates  the  testimony  of  Acts.  All  the  more  significant, 
therefore,  is  the  spirit  of  generosity  and  practical  brotherhood  that 
inspired  these  primitive  Christian  believers.  Not  under  the  com- 
pulsion of  a  social  compact  or  institution,  but  prompted  simply  by  the 
spirit  of  their  Master,  "they  called  none  of  the  things  which  they 
possessed  their  own,  but  shared  all  things  with  one  another."  The 
social  ideals  that  Jesus  had  held  up  before  his  followers  and  tried  to 
apply  practically  in  the  life  of  the  closely  knit  community  that  lived 
around  the  northern  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  were  being  realized. 
While  his  influence  upon  them  was  still  freshest  and  strongest  they 
literally  did  to  others  as  they  would  have  others  do  to  them.  What 
Luke  records  is  simply  a  practical  application  of  Jesus'  social  teachings. 
Undoubtedly  the  believers'  expectation  of  the  speedy  second  coming  of 
their  Master  was  also  the  background  of  this  unique  social  life;  but  it 
is  well  that  the  Christian  church  has  ever  held  up  before  it  a  concrete 
illustration  of  what  the  teachings  of  Jesus  can  do  and  yet  will  do  for 
society,  as  well  as  for  its  individual  citizens.  Jesus  saved  Zaccheus, 
the  tax  collector  of  Jericho,  by  influencing  him  to  give  back  in  generous 
measure  what  he  had  stolen  from  society.  Barnabas  and  other  Jeru- 
salem citizens  like  him  represent  a  still  higher  stage  in  that  socializing 
process  which  Jesus  aimed  to  perfect  in  every  man.  The  social  leaven 
which  he  had  implanted  in  the  heart  of  Judaism  was  beginning  to  work 
silently  but  rapidly  in  an  ever-widening  circle. 

VII.  The  Story  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira.  This  story  has  been 
regarded  by  many  historians  as  apocryphal.  In  the  form  in  which  it 
has  come  to  us  tradition  may  have  heightened  certain  details,  as,  for 
example,  the  immediate  death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  on  the  dis- 
covery of  their  deceit;  or  they  may  have  been  afflicted  with  acute 
heart-disease.  One  thing  is  certain:  the  narrative  comes  from  one  of 
the  earlier  sources,  for  it  implicitly  disproves  the  general  statement 

43 


THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIAN  COMMUNITY 

of  the  editor  that  "the  believers  shared  all  they  had  with  one  an- 
other" (Acts  245).  The  apostles,  like  the  ancient  Hebrew  prophets  (e.  g., 
Amos's  doom  upon  Amaziah,  Amos  717,  or  Isaiah's  definite  prediction 
of  the  fate  of  Shebna,  Isaiah  2215*19),  appear  to  have  proclaimed  the  doom 
awaiting  especially  guilty  offenders.  Thus  Paul  in  I  Corinthians  55 
declared  regarding  a  member  of  the  Corinthian  church  who  was  guilty 
of  gross  social  immorality:  "By  the  power  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  I 
here  consign  that  individual  to  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  his  flesh 
in  order  that  his  spirit  may  be  saved  on  the  day  of  our  Lord  Jesus." 
The  sin  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  appears  to  have  been  their  attempt 
to  deceive  their  fellow  Christians  by  retaining  part  of  the  proceeds 
from  the  sale  of  the  land  which  they  had  donated  to  the  community. 
Confronted  by  this  evidence  of  disloyalty  to  the  teachings  of  Jesus, 
Peter  could  not  have  refrained  from  a  scathing  condemnation,  and  it 
could  not  have  failed  to  make  a  profound  impression  upon  the  pathetic 
pair  who  were  making  such  a  disastrous  attempt  to  serve  both  God  and 
mammon.  Whenever,  whether  at  once  or,  later,  death  overtook  the 
culprits,  it  would  be  inevitably  regarded  as  a  divine  judgment.  It  is 
important  to  note,  however,  that  the  story  does  not  claim  to  recount 
a  miracle;  it  simply  aims  to  illustrate  by  contrast  the  powerful  social 
spirit  that  inspired  the  Christian  community  and  to  point  an  exceed- 
ingly important  moral. 

VIII.  The  Religious  Life  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians.  Help- 
fulness, hopefulness,  unselfishness,  and  joyfulness  characterized  the 
life  of  the  early  Jerusalem  community.  In  the  days  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  great  revival  at  Pentecost  it  was  in  a  very  true  sense  a 
partial  realization  of  Jesus'  ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  earth. 
All  its  members  were  bound  together  by  a  common  loyalty  to  their 
heavenly  Father  and  a  single-minded  devotion  to  the  ideals  of  their 
Master.  Daily  they  worshipped  together  in  the  temple;  each  meal  in 
their  homes  was  apparently  eaten  in  commemoration  of  their  dead 
but  risen  Lord.  Together  they  constituted  one  large  family  united  by 
a  spirit  of  good-will  and  generosity  and  the  consciousness  of  a  great 
mission.  The  beauty  of  their  common  life  and  the  teachings  of  the 
apostles  attracted  many  Jews  to  their  ranks.  The  step  for  them  was 
easy,  for  the  Twelve  had  no  thought  of  a  break  with  Judaism.  They 
regarded  the  scriptures  of  their  race  and  the  service  of  the  temple  as 
essential  foundations  of  their  faith.  The  new  elements  in  their  belief 
simply  represented  the  last  chapter  in  God's  revelation  to  his  people. 
Instead  of  separating  from  their  fellow  Jews,  they  sought  to  attract  all 

44 


THE  RELIGIOUS  LIFE 

members  of  their  race  to  themselves,  the  true  Israel.  The  idea  of  a 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  outside  Judaism  was  equally  alien  to  the  thought 
of  the  Twelve,  although  they  would  doubtless  have  welcomed  pros- 
elytes who  came  to  them,  even  as  did  the  strictest  of  the  Jews.  Acts 
512-16  SUggests  that  in  time  they  had  fallen  into  an  entanglement  which 
Jesus  in  the  early  Galilean  days  had  carefully  avoided.  The  reputa- 
tion which  the  apostles  had  gained  through  healing  the  lame  man  in 
the  temple  courts  attracted  to  them  credulous  multitudes  of  men  and 
women  afflicted  with  physical  and  mental  maladies.  If  the  narrative 
be  accepted  as  strictly  historical,  it  is  evident  that  this  popular  credu- 
lity passed  over  into  superstition.  It  is  significant  that  at  this  point 
the  record  of  the  successful  preaching  work  of  the  Twelve  in  Jerusalem 
suddenly  ceases.  Henceforth  the  interest  centres  in  the  group  of 
Hellenistic  Jews,  gifted  with  a  larger  outlook,  whose  work  led  ulti- 
mately to  the  breaking  of  Jewish  bonds  and  the  expansion  of  Christian- 
ity into  a  world  religion.  The  important  fact  to  be  noted,  however, 
is  that  the  vital  force  in  the  life  of  the  primitive  church  was  not  its 
ritual  or  its  ceremonial  forms  but  the  common  beliefs  and  the  mutual 
love  and  spirit  of  service  which  bound  all  together  into  one  great  fam- 
ily and  attracted  to  their  ranks  the  many  who  felt  the  crying  spiritual 
and  social  needs  that  Christianity,  thus  simply  and  concretely  inter- 
preted, was  able  to  supply.  The  early  Christian  church  was  but  an 
extension  of  the  unique  brotherhood  which  Jesus  had  established  during 
his  active  Galilean  days.  What  was  true  of  Christianity  at  first  has 
proved  true  throughout  its  history :  its  significant  and  lasting  conquests 
have  been  won  through  the  personal  touch  and  through  fellowship  in 
faith,  in  love,  and  in  service. 

§CXLVm.    THE  WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

Now  during  those  days,  when  the  disciples  were  increas-  The 
ing  in  number,  the  Hellenists  (the  Greek-speaking  Jews)   pSint- 
began  to  complain  against  the  Hebrews  (who  were  natives  JjJ^ 
and  residents  in  Palestine)   because   their  widows  were  seven 
being  overlooked  in  the  daily  distribution  of  food.    There-  iiSf* 
fore  the  Twelve  called  together  the  main  body  of  the  dis- 
ciples and  said,  It  is  not  fitting  that  we  should  neglect  preach- 
ing the  word  of  God  in  order  to  serve  meals.     Brothers, 
select  seven  of  your  own  number,  men  of  good  reputation, 
full  of  the  Spirit  and  of  wisdom,  whom  we  will  place  in 

45 


WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

charge  of  this  matter;  but  we  will  continue  to  devote  our- 
selves to  prayer  and  the  ministry  of  the  word.  This  plan 
met  with  the  approval  of  the  whole  body.  Accordingly, 
they  chose  Stephen,  a  man  full  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Philip,  Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parmenas,  and  Nic- 
olaiis,  a  proselyte  from  Antioch.  These  men  they  set  be- 
fore the  apostles,  who  after  praying  laid  their  hands  upon 
them, 
in-  And  the  word  of  the  Lord  spread  and  the  number  of  the 

g6^    disciples  in  Jerusalem  increased  greatly  and  a  large  number 
apies     of  priests  became  obedient  to  the  faith. 
tL  Now  Stephen,  who  was  full  of  grace  and  power,  performed 

ggjgt  great  wonders  and  miracles  among  the  people.  But  some 
st^  of  those  who  belonged  to  the  so-called  synagogue  of  the 
(g-xl)1  Libyians  and  Cyrenians  and  the  Alexandrians,  and  also  the 
natives  of  Cilicia  and  the  Roman  province  of  Asia  began 
to  dispute  with  Stephen,  and  they  were  not  able  to  meet 
the  wisdom  and  spirit  with  which  he  spoke.  Then  they 
instigated  certain  men  to  say,  We  have  heard  him  speak- 
ing blasphemous  words  against  Moses  and  God.  Thus 
they  stirred  up  the  people,  the  elders  and  the  scribes  so 
that  they  rushed  upon  him  and  seized  him  and  took  him 
before  the  Sanhedrin.  They  also  set  up  false  witnesses 
who  said,  This  man  never  ceases  talking  against  this  holy 
place  and  the  law.  Indeed  we  have  heard  him  say  that 
this  Jesus  the  Nazarene  will  destroy  this  place  and  change 
the  customs  handed  down  to  us  by  Moses! 
His  Then  all  who  were  seated  in  the  Sanhedrin  fixed  their 

before3  eves  on  him.  and  saw  that  his  face  shone  like  the  face  of  an 
sanne-    anSel-    But  the  high  priest   said,   Are   these  things   so? 
dSn  °"    Stephen  replied,  Brothers  and  fathers,  listen :  The  God  of 
(615-75.    giory  appeared  to  our  father  Abraham  while  he  was  still  in 
Mesopotamia,  before  he  dwelt  in  Haran,  and  said  to  him, 
*  Go  forth  from  thy  land  and  from  thy  kinsmen  and  come  to 
the  land  which  I  will  show  thee.'    Then,  leaving  the  land 
of  the  Chaldeans,  he  stayed  in  Haran.    After  his  father's 
death,  God  moved  him  into  this  land  where  you  now  dwell. 
But  he  did  not  give  him  any  inheritance  in  it  nor  even  a 
foot  of  land.    He  did,  however,  promise  that  he  would  give 
it  as  a  possession  to  him  and  to  his  descendants  after  him, 

46 


STEPHEN'S  ADDRESS 


although  as  yet  he  was  childless.  So  Abraham  became  the 
father  of  Isaac,  whom  he  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day. 
And  Isaac  was  the  father  of  Jacob,  and  Jacob  of  the  twelve 
patriarchs. 

And  the  patriarchs  were  jealous  of  Joseph  and  sold  him 
into  Egypt.  But  God  was  with  him  and  delivered  him  out 
of  all  his  troubles  and  gave  him  favor  and  wisdom  in  the 
presence  of  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt,  who  appointed  him 
governor  over  Egypt  and  over  all  his  own  household.  But 
a  famine  came  over  the  whole  land  of  Egypt  and  Canaan 
and  great  misery  so  that  our  forefathers  could  find  no  food. 
But  Jacob,  hearing  that  there  was  food  in  Egypt,  sent  our 
forefathers  there  for  the  first  time.  And  on  their  second 
visit,  Joseph  made  himself  known  to  his  brothers,  and 
Pharaoh  was  informed  regarding  Joseph's  lineage.  Then 
Joseph  sent  and  invited  his  father  Jacob  and  all  his  family, 
amounting  to  seventy-five  persons.  So  Jacob  went  down 
into  Egypt. 

But  as  the  time  drew  near  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  prom- 
ise made  to  Abraham,  the  people  grew  and  multiplied  in 
Egypt,  until  another  king  arose  in  Egypt  who  knew  not 
Joseph.  He,  adopting  a  crafty  policy  toward  our  race,  op- 
pressed our  forefathers  by  making  them  expose  their  infants 
so  that  tliey  might  not  live.  At  this  time  Moses  was  born, 
a  divinely  beautiful  child,  and  for  three  months  he  was 
cared  for  in  his  father's  house.  Then  he  was  exposed  but 
Pharaoh's  daughter  adopted  him  and  brought  him  up  as 
her  own  son.  So  Moses  was  educated  in  all  the  learning 
of  the  Egyptians  and  was  a  man  strong  in  speech  and 
action.  When  he  had  completed  his  fortieth  year,  it  oc- 
curred to  him  to  visit  his  kinsmen,  the  children  of  Israel. 
Seeing  one  of  them  being  unjustly  treated,  he  took  his  part 
and  avenged  the  man  who  was  being  unjustly  treated  by 
striking  down  the  Egyptian.  He  supposed  that  his  kins- 
men knew  that  by  him  God  was  going  to  bring  them  deliv- 
erance: but  they  did  not  understand.  Next  day  he  came 
upon  two  of  them  fighting.  And  he  tried  to  make  peace 
between  them,  saying,  '  Men,  you  are  brothers !  Why 
injure  one  another?  '  But  the  man  who  was  injuring  his 
neighbor  pushed  him  away,  saying,  *  Who  made  you  ruler 

47 


God's 
leader- 
ship 
of  the 
people 

Joseph 

(MS.) 


Their 
deliv- 
erance 
by 
Moses 

(17-37) 


WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

and  judge  over  us?    Do  you  want  to  kill  me  as  you  killed 
the  Egyptian  yesterday]?  '    At  this  speech  Moses  fled  and 
became  a  resident  alien  in  the  land  of  Midian,  where  he 
became  the  father  of  two  sons.    At  the  close  of  forty  years 
an  angel  appeared  to  him  in  the  flame  of  a  burning  thorn 
bush  in  the  wilderness  of  Mount  Sinai.    When  Moses  saw 
this  he  marvelled  at  the  sight;  but  as  he  went  up  to  look 
at  it,  the  voice  of  the  Lord  said,  *  I  am  the  God  of  your 
fathers,  the  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob.1    Trem- 
bling with  fear,  Moses  did  not  dare  to  look.    And  the  Lord 
said  to  him,  *  Take  thy  sandals  off  thy  feet,  for  the  place 
where  thou  art  standing  is  sacred  ground.    I  have  indeed 
seen  the  oppression  of  my  people  in  Egypt.    I  have  heard 
their  groans  and  I  have  come  down  to  deliver  them.     Come 
now,  I  will  send  thee  back  to  Egypt.'    That  Moses  whom 
they  rejected,  saying,  '  Who  made  you  a  ruler  and  judge 
over  us?  ' — that  was  the  very  man  whom  God  sent  to  rule 
and  redeem  them  by  the  help  of  the  angel  who  appeared 
to  him  in  the  bush.    He  it  was  who  led  them  forth,  doing 
wonders  and  signs  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  at  the  Red  Sea, 
and  in  the  wilderness  for  forty  years.    This  is  the  Moses  who 
said  to  the  children  of  Israel,  'God  will  raise  up  a  prophet 
for  you  from  among  your  brotherhood,  as  he  raised  me.' 
Their         This  was  the  man  who  at  the  assembly  in  the  wilderness 
Safin    intervened  between  the  angel  who  spoke  to  him  on  Mount 
^fder_   Sinai  and  our  fathers;  he  received  living  words  to  be  given 
nesser"   to  us.    But  our  forefathers  would  not  submit  to  him,  but 
(,8^*)      pushed  him  aside  and  in  their  hearts  hankered  for  Egypt. 
They  said  to  Aaron, '  Make  for  us  gods  that  they  may  march 
in  front  of  us !    As  for  this  Moses  who  led  us  out  of  Egypt, 
we  do  not  know  what  has  become  of  him!'    Moreover  they 
made  a  calf  in  those  days,  offered  sacrifice  to  this  idol,  and 
rejoiced  over  what  their  own  hands  had  made.     So  God 
turned  from  them  and  gave  them  up  to  the  worship  of  the 
host  of  heaven. 
God's         In  the  wilderness  our  forefathers  had  the  tent  of  testi- 
Kfor  mony,  made  as  he  who  spoke  to  Moses  had  instructed  him 
their      to  make  it  after  the  pattern  he  had  seen.    This  also  our 
SSp~      forefathers  in  their  turn  brought  in  with  Joshua  when  they 
(""50)      took  possession  of  the  territory  of  the  nations  whom  God 

48 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  ISRAELITES 

drove  out  before  them.  So  it  remained  until  the  days  of 
David.  He  found  favor  with  God  and  asked  that  he  might 
provide  a  dwelling  for  the  God  of  Jacob.  But  it  was  Solor 
mon  who  built  him  a  house. 

Yet  the  Most  High  doth  not  dwell  in  houses  made  with 
hands.    As  the  prophet  says: 

Heaven  is  my  throne, 

And  the  earth  is  a  footstool  for  my  feet! 

What  kind  of  house  will  ye  build  for  me,  saith  the  Lord? 

Or  what  resting  place  shall  I  have? 

Did  not  my  hand  make  all  this? 

Stiff-necked  and  uncircumcised  in  heart  and  ears,  you 
are  always  resisting  the  Holy  Spirit!    As  with  your  fore-  aant?6" 
fathers,  so  with  you !    Which  of  the  prophets  did  your  fore-  u^r 
fathers  not  persecute?    They  also  killed  those  who  an-  atti-lve 
nounced  beforehand  the  coming  of  the  Just  One,  whose  theeof 
betrayers  and  murderers  you  have  become — you  who  re-  Jews 
ceived  the  law  given  through  angels  and  yet  have  not 
obeyed  it! 

When  they  heard  this  they  were  furious  and  gnashed  their 
teeth  at  him.     But  he,  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  gazed  up  into  p^ns 
heaven  and  saw  the  glory  of  God  and  Jesus  standing  at  the  death 
right  hand  of  God.    Behold,  I  see  heaven  open,  he  said,  &)    ' 
and  the  Son  of  Man  standing  at  the  right  hand  of  God. 
But  they  with  a  loud  shriek  shut  their  ears  and  rushed  at 
him  in  a  body.    Dragging  him  outside  the  city,  they  stoned 
him.     And  the  witnesses  laid  their  clothes  at  the  feet  of  a 
youth    called    Saul.     So    they    stoned    Stephen   while   he 
prayed,  Lord  Jesus  receive  my  spirit!    Then  kneeling  down 
he  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  Lord,  let  not  this  sin  stand  against 
them!    And  when  he  had  said  this,  he  fell  asleep.    But 
certain  devout  men  buried  Stephen  and  made  loud  lamen- 
tation over  him. 

I.  The  Story  of  Stephen's  Martyrdom.  This  story  marks  an 
important  stage  in  the  history  of  the  Apostolic  Age.  It  contains  the 
first  suggestion  of  a  rift  between  the  Jewish  and  Hellenistic  elements 
in  the  Jewish  Christian  community.  The  only  explanation  of  its 
presence  in  a  writing,  the  irenical  purpose  of  which  is  so  evident  as 

49 


WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

that  of  Acts,  is  that  the  narrative  was  originally  drawn  from  an  older 
and  probably  written  source.  The  facts  presented  in  this  narrative 
have  only  the  most  general  and  loose  relation  to  those  found  in  the 
preceding  chapters.  The  speech  attributed  to  Stephen  in  chapter  7 
is  also  the  longest  in  the  book.  Its  thought  and  argument  have  no 
close  parallel  in  the  New  Testament  except  in  the  book  of  Hebrews. 
It  is  clearly  the  work  of  a  Jew  familiar  with  the  contemporary  rabbin- 
ical interpretations  of  the  older  scriptures.  Thus,  for  example,  it  is 
stated  that  an  angel  spoke  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai  and  that  the  law 
was  ordained  by  angels  (Acts  738,  M).  These  are  details  of  later  Jewish 
tradition  which  would  naturally  be  unknown  to  a  Greek  like  Luke, 
except  as  he  found  them  incorporated  in  some  earlier  source.  Further- 
more, the  discourse  attributed  to  Stephen  is  not  closely  connected  with 
its  context.  It  is  not  so  much  a  defense  as  a  part  of  a  discussion  such 
as  Stephen  is  reported  (in  Acts  69, 10)  to  have  carried  on  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  the  Greek-speaking  Jews.  The  only  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  its  presence  is  that  it  was  preserved  and  associated  with  the 
name  of  Stephen.  These  and  other  reasons  indicate  that  this  story  of 
his  martyrdom  is  one  of  the  oldest  narratives  in  the  first  part  of  the 
book  of  Acts.  It  certainly  furnishes  invaluable  data  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  this  great  turning-point  in  the  life  of  the  early  Christian  com- 
munity. 

II.  The  Appointment  of  the  Seven.  The  dramatic  account  of 
the  day  of  Pentecost  implies  that  many  Jews  of  the  dispersion  were 
early  attracted  to  the  Christian  community.  This  conclusion  is  con- 
firmed by  Acts  6.  It  was  natural  that  the  teachings  and  principles  of 
Jesus  should  appeal  more  strongly  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews  (that  is,  to 
the  Greek-speaking  Jews  who  had  been  born  and  reared  beyond  the 
bounds  of  Palestine)  than  to  those  of  Palestine.  Their  contact  with 
the  larger  Greek  world  had  opened  their  minds  to  new  truths  and  had 
developed  a  receptive  attitude.  As  a  whole,  they  were  mentally  more 
alert  and  better  educated.  Throughout  all  their  history  the  Jews  of 
the  dispersion  had  shown  themselves  more  friendly  toward  new  ideas. 
Thus,  for  example,  they  alone  accepted  the  so-called  apocryphal  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  while  the  Palestinian  Jews  rejected  them  from 
their  canon.  Some  of  these  Hellenistic  Jews  were  probably  temporary 
residents  in  Jerusalem,  simply  as  pilgrims,  while  others,  having  acquired 
a  competence,  had  returned,  like  many  of  the  Jews  to  be  found  in 
Jerusalem  to-day,  to  spend  the  remainder  of  their  life  under  the  shadow 
of  the  temple.     The  Jews  of  Palestine,  on  the  other  hand,  were,  as  a 

50 


THE  APPOINTMENT  OF  THE  SEVEN 

rule,  self-satisfied  and  inclined  to  look  down  upon  the  other  members 
of  their  race,  whom  they  regarded  as  contaminated  by  contact  with 
the  heathen  and  by  long  residence  in  foreign  lands.  They  also  viewed 
askance  their  more  tolerant  attitude  toward  Greek  culture  and  life  and 
the  customs  of  the  outside  world.  It  was  probably  this  inherited  and 
inbred  attitude  that  led  the  Palestinian  Jewish  Christians  to  neglect 
the  needy  members  of  the  Hellenistic  group.  The  apostles'  evident 
ignorance  of  this  tendency  indicates  that  the  neglect  was  the  fault  of  the 
humbler  members  of  the  community,  to  whom  was  doubtless  intrusted 
the  task  of  serving  food.  Such  differences  are  often  more  marked  the 
lower  the  individuals  stand  in  the  social  scale.  The  evil  was  suffi- 
cient, however,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  leaders  in  the  Helle- 
nistic group  and  to  induce  them  to  lay  the  matter  before  the  Twelve. 
When  it  was  brought  to  their  attention,  they  settled  it  in  the  fairest 
and  simplest  way.  They  rightly  maintained  that  they  themselves 
should  not  neglect  their  work  of  preaching  to  serve  tables.  Accord- 
ingly they  requested  the  Hellenists  to  select  seven  of  their  most  re- 
liable and  spiritually  minded  leaders  to  look  out  for  the  interests  of 
their  group.  This  proposal  was  commended  by  the  entire  Christian 
community.  The  method  adopted  in  meeting  this  difficulty  also  il- 
lustrates the  democratic  spirit  that  actuated  the  Christian  believers  in 
all  their  relations  with  each  other. 

The  Greek  names  of  the  seven,  as  well  as  the  narrative,  indicate  that 
they  were  probably  all  Hellenistic  Jews  by  birth.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
regard  them  as  the  prototypes  of  the  later  order  of  deacons.  Rather 
they  appear  to  have  been  a  committee  appointed  to  represent  the  Hel- 
lenistic group  in  the  Christian  community  in  very  much  the  same  way 
as  the  apostles  represented  the  Palestinian  group.  They  were  chosen 
apparently  not  because  of  their  age  but  for  their  ability.  Their  ap- 
pointment did  not  establish  a  new  office  but  rather  met  practically  a 
pressing  need.  As  the  event  proved,  the  men  appointed  were  of  such 
signal  ability  that  they  soon  showed  themselves  qualified  to  do  far 
more  than  serve  tables.  Certain  of  them  soon  surpassed  the  Twelve 
as  preachers  and  controversialists  and  won  a  leading  place  among  the 
apostles  who  proclaimed  the  teachings  and  works  of  Jesus  to  the  Jewish 
and  Gentile  world.  Their  appointment  is  a  convincing  proof  that  the 
rift  between  the  Palestinian  and  Hellenistic  Jews,  even  within  the 
Christian  community,  was  practically  inevitable,  and  that  it  was 
recognized  long  before  Paul  entered  upon  his  campaign  to  liberate 
Gentile  Christians  from  Jewish  bonds. 

51 


WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

III.     Stephen's  Discussions  with  the  Hellenistic  Jews.    It  is 

difficult  to  determine  how  much  time  is  represented  by  the  narrative 
of  Acts  6  and  7.  It  may  have  been  a  year  or  more.  During  this  period 
Stephen  had  evidently  become  the  recognized  leader  and  spokesman 
of  the  seven  and  had  developed  an  apostolic  ability  which  for  a  time 
even  eclipsed  that  of  Peter  himself.  There  was  apparently  a  tacit 
and  amicable  division  of  the  field  between  the  Twelve  and  the  seven. 
Stephen  worked  where  the  Twelve  were  only  partially  effective,  that 
is,  among  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  The  narrative  indicates  that,  instead 
of  confining  his  speeches  to  the  temple  courts,  he  went  into  their  syna- 
gogues, not  to  preach  but,  after  the  method  so  much  beloved  by  the 
Greeks,  to  engage  in  open  discussion  with  their  elders.  The  fact 
that  he  first  entered  the  synagogues  whose  membership  was  made  up 
of  Hellenists  from  the  Jewish  colonies  in  northern  Africa  suggests  that 
Stephen  himself  came  originally  from  that  part  of  the  Roman  world. 
This  inference  is  strongly  supported  by  the  marked  peculiarity  and 
style  of  thought  reflected  in  the  speech  attributed  to  him  and  recorded 
in  Acts  7,  for  they  are  found  only  in  writings  that  show  the  influence 
of  Alexandria.  It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  in  the  synagogue  of  the 
Cilicians  he  first  met,  possibly  in  open  discussion,  a  certain  Jew  from 
the  Cilician  city  of  Tarsus  by  the  name  of  Paul.  The  line  of  reasoning 
which  Stephen  adopted  is  doubtless  represented  by  the  discourse  in 
chapter  7.  Starting  with  Jewish  premises,  he  aimed  to  show  the 
logical  connection  with  and  yet  the  superiority  of  the  teachings  and 
work  of  Jesus  to  those  of  the  earlier  teachers  of  his  race.  Apparently 
he  triumphed  over  his  opponents.  He  also  aroused  the  bitter  oppo- 
sition of  many  of  the  Hellenists,  so  that  in  their  rage  they  charged  him 
with  blasphemy.  It  was  a  charge  which  always  stirred  the  wrath  of 
the  Jews.  Not  only  did  it  enrage  the  mass  of  the  people  but  evidently 
kindled  the  indignation  of  the  Pharisaic  leaders.  Thus  reinforced,  the 
Hellenistic  Jews  lodged  a  definite  charge  against  him  before  the  national 
Jewish  council,  the  Sanhedrin,  before  which  cases  of  heresy  were  tried. 
The  final  form  of  the  charge  that  they  preferred  against  him  was  that 
his  teachings  had  been  hostile  to  the  Jewish  temple  and  law:  "that 
Jesus  the  Nazarene  will  destroy  this  place  and  change  the  customs 
handed  down  to  us  by  Moses."  Evidently  this  was  a  popular  inter- 
pretation of  the  intent  of  Stephen's  teachings.  It  implies  that  he  had 
quoted  Jesus'  words  about  the  temple  recorded  in  Mark  131,  2.  The 
discourse  which  follows  suggests  the  ultimate  basis  of  their  charge. 
Like  Jesus,  Stephen  aimed  not  to  destroy  the  law  but  to  show  that  his 

52 


DISCUSSIONS  WITH  THE  JEWS 

Master's  work  represented  its  logical  fruition.  This  charge  also  sug- 
gests what  would  have  been  the  conclusion  of  Stephen's  address  had 
not  the  stones  flung  by  the  infuriated  mob  forever  interrupted  it. 

IV.  The  Logic  of  Stephen's  Speech.  The  speech  attributed 
to  Stephen  in  Acts  7  is  not  a  formal  defense  but  a  resume  of  his  teach- 
ings. Its  logical  connection  is  not  always  obvious  and  a  certain  typo- 
logical undercurrent  runs  through  it  which  is  closely  related  to  the 
contemporary  writings  emanating  from  the  Alexandrian  school.  Its 
free  interpretation  of  history  and  the  use  of  scripture  also  recall  the 
methods  of  the  rabbis.  He  first  reminds  the  Jews  of  how  God  called 
their  forefather  Abraham  and  guided  their  ancestors  through  countless 
perils  that  their  descendants  might  ultimately  realize  their  divine 
destiny.  Each  prophet  and  deliverer  was  a  type  of  the  deliverer  that 
was  ultimately  to  be  revealed.  The  different  physical  resting-places 
to  which  he  led  his  people,  and,  above  all,  the  land  of  Canaan,  were 
symbolic  of  the  ultimate  rest  prepared  for  those  who  trust  him.  The 
tabernacle  and  the  temple  with  their  formal  service  were  but  primitive 
types  of  the  real  heavenly  dwelling-place  of  the  Almighty.  Through 
all  these  various  experiences  God  had  been  seeking  to  train  his  people 
for  the  reception  of  a  greater  truth,  but  they  had  consistently  proved 
stubborn  and  irreceptive,  resisting  the  influences  of  his  Spirit.  Not 
only  they,  but  the  men  who  stood  before  him  were  more  intent  upon 
persecuting  and  killing  the  prophets  than  of  learning  and  accepting 
their  messages.  Little  wonder  then  that  when  the  Just  One  announced 
by  all  earlier  prophets  and  the  culmination  of  God's  process  of  revela- 
tion came  to  them  they  betrayed  and  murdered  him,  for  they  had  dis- 
obeyed the  law  and  the  divine  revelation  which  it  embodied. 

It  is  evident  that  Stephen  was  not  conscious  of  repudiating  the  Jew- 
ish law  and  temple  ritual.  Rather,  like  the  ethical  prophets  of  old,  he 
felt  that  he  was  simply  emphasizing  their  spiritual  teachings.  Far 
from  desiring  to  bring  about  a  breach  between  Judaism  and  Christian- 
ity, he  was,  like  the  Twelve,  trying  to  lead  the  Jews  to  accept  the 
teachings  and  work  of  their  greatest  prophet  and  their  promised  Mes- 
siah. Jesus,  in  the  thought  of  Stephen,  was  the  Just  One  toward 
whom  all  their  earlier  leaders  and  experiences  had  pointed. 

V.  The  Death  of  Stephen.  In  the  death  of  Stephen  primitive 
Christianity  lost  one  of  its  greatest  interpreters.  A  first-hand  impres- 
sion of  his  character  and  work  is  probably  preserved  in  Acts  615b.  As 
he  stood  before  the  hostile  members  of  the  Sanhedrin,  they  saw  that 
"his  face  shone  like  the  face  of  an  angel."     It  is  a  dramatic  and  sig- 

53 


WORK  AND  DEATH  OF  STEPHEN 

nificant  fact  that  Acts  in  its  account  of  the  martyrdom  has  brought 
Paul  and  Stephen  together,  and  has  left  us  to  infer  that  the  divine  light 
that  shone  from  Stephen's  dying  eyes  proved  the  foregleams  of  the 
divine  effulgence  that  beamed  upon  Paul  on  his  memorable  journey 
a  little  later  to  Damascus.  Stephen  manifested  the  same  tireless 
energy,  the  same  boldness,  and  the  same  utter  disregard  of  opposition 
and  pain  as  did  Paul.  Like  Paul,  his  logic  was  destined  in  the  end  to 
break  the  narrow  bonds  of  Judaism,  though  he  appears  to  have  been 
unconscious  of  that  fact.  If  he  had  lived,  the  later  history  of  Pales- 
tinian Christianity  would  probably  have  been  very  different.  Cer- 
tainly the  break  with  narrow  Judaistic  Christianity  would  have  come 
much  earlier.  Stephen  in  his  preaching  laid  the  foundations  for  the 
world-wide  expansion  of  Christianity.  In  his  work  among  the  Jews 
of  the  dispersion  resident  at  Jerusalem  he  apparently  kindled  the  fire 
of  Christianity  which  before  long  flamed  up  in  the  far-away  cities  of 
northern  Africa  and  western  Syria.  Fortunately,  in  a  very  real  sense 
the  mantle  which  slipped  from  Stephen's  shoulders  fell  upon  Paul. 
Like  Jesus,  Stephen  in  certain  ways  accomplished  more  by  his  mar- 
tyrdom than  he  did  while  living.  Again  the  age-long  principle  was 
illustrated  that,  if  a  man  gives  his  life  for  a  cause,  no  one  can  gainsay 
the  sincerity  of  his  testimony.  The  death  of  Stephen  was  well  cal- 
culated to  make  an  indelible  impression  upon  all  who  witnessed  or 
heard  of  it.  The  narrative  of  Acts  implies  that  as  he  was  dying  there 
was  given  to  him  one  of  the  many  visions  of  the  risen  Christ  which  had 
characterized  and  inspired  the  activity  of  the  early  Christians.  His 
words  remain  the  only  direct  testimony  we  have  regarding  the  exact 
nature  of  these  visions:  "Behold  I  see  heaven  open  and  the  Son  of  Man 
standing  at  God's  right  hand." 

§CXLIX.    THE   EXPANSION   OF   CHRISTIANITY   AFTER   THE 
DEATH   OF   STEPHEN 

The  On  the  day  when  Stephen  was  stoned  to  death  a  great 

gj£g  persecution  broke  out  against  the  church  in  Jerusalem,  and 
of  the  all  except  the  apostles  were  scattered  throughout  Judea 
§££T  and  Samaria.  And  those  who  were  scattered  went  in  dif- 
^bC,\)     ferent  directions  preaching  the  gospel. 

Philip  travelled  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  where  he 
preached  Christ  to  them.  And  the  crowds  attended  with 
one  accord  to  what  was  said  by  Philip,  listening  to  him  and 

54 


PHILIP'S  WORK  IN  SAMARIA 

seeing  the  miracles  he   performed.    For  unclean   spirits  Philips 
came  with  a  loud  cry  out  of  many  who  had  been  possessed,  s£.rkm 
and  many  paralytics  and  lame  people  were  healed.    So  ^ia 
there  was  great  joy  in  that  city. 

Now  for  some  time  past  a  man  named  Simon  had  been  Simon 
practising  magic  arts  in  the  city  and  astonishing  the  Sa-  J^j.? 
maritans,  pretending  he  was  a  great  person.    And  all  sorts  cjan 
and  conditions  of  people  attached  themselves  to  him,  say- 
ing, This  one  is  that  Power  of  God  which  is  known  as  i  The 
Great  Power.'    They  attached  themselves  to  him  because 
he  had  amazed  them  for  a  considerable  time  with  his  magic 
skill.    But  when  they  believed  Philip,  who  preached  the 
Kingdom  of  God  and  the  name  of  Jesus,  they  had  them- 
selves baptized,  both  men   and  women.     Simon  himself 
also  believed,  and  after  being  baptized  kept  close  to  Philip 
and  was  astonished  to  see  the  signs  and  great  miracles  which 
were  performed. 

When  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  heard  that  Samaria  had  His 
accepted  the  word  of  God,  they  sent  to  them  Peter  and  John,  ggj^a. 
who  came  down  and  prayed  that  they  might  receive  the  ^e^y 
Holy  Spirit,  for  it  had  not  yet  fallen  upon  any  of  them,   (if-*?) 
They  had  simply  been  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus.    Then  they  laid  their  hands  on  them  and  they  re- 
ceived the  Holy  Spirit.    But  when  Simon  saw  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  conferred  by  the  laying  on  of  the  apostles'  hands, 
he  brought  them  money,  saying,  Give  me,  too,  this  power, 
so  that  anyone  on  whom  I  lay  my  hands  may  receive  the 
Holy  Spirit.    Peter  said  to  him,  May  your  money  and  you 
perish  for  supposing  that  you  could  buy  the  gift  of  God! 
You  have  no  share  nor  lot  in  this  religion,  for  your  heart  is 
not  right  in  the  sight  of  God.     So  repent  of  this  wickedness 
of  yours  and  pray  to  the  Lord  in  the  hope  that  your  heart's 
purpose  may  be  forgiven.    For  I  see  that  you  are  a  bitter 
poison  and  a  pack  of  evil.    Simon  replied,  Pray  the  Lord 
for  me.    Pray  that  nothing  you  have  said  may  befall  me.       pJS? 

So  the  apostles  after  bearing  their  testimony  to  the  word  mation 
of  the  Lord  and  preaching  it,  returned  to  Jerusalem  preach-  jLus 
ing  the  gospel  to  a  number  of  the  Samaritan  villages.    But  ^twlt 
the  angel  of  the  Lord  said  to  Philip,  Rise  and  go  south,  plan 
along  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza  (this  is  the  desert  (^c 

55 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

route).  So  he  arose  and  went  on  his  way.  Now  there 
was  an  Ethiopian  eunuch,  a  high  official  of  Candace  the 
queen  of  the  Ethiopians,  who  was  her  chief  treasurer  and 
had  come  to  Jerusalem  for  worship  but  was  on  his  way 
home.  And  as  he  was  sitting  in  his  chariot,  he  was  reading 
the  prophet  Isaiah.  Then  the  Spirit  said  to  Philip,  Go  up 
and  join  that  chariot.  And  as  Philip  ran  up  he  heard  him 
reading  the  prophet  Isaiah.  Do  you  understand  what  you 
are  reading,  he  asked.  How  can  I,  said  the  eunuch,  unless 
someone  guide  me?  And  he  begged  Philip  to  get  up  and 
sit  beside  him.  Now  the  passage  of  scripture  which  he 
was  reading  was  this: 

He  was  led  like  a  sheep  to  slaughter, 

And  as  a  lamb  is  dumb  before  the  shearer, 

So  he  opened  not  his  lips. 

Who  will  make  known  his  generation. 

In  his  humiliation  the  justice  due  him  was  taken  away, 

For  his  life  is  cut  off  from  the  earth. 

So  the  eunuch  said  to  Philip,  Pray,  of  whom  is  the  prophet 

speaking?     Of  himself  or  of  someone  else?    Then  Philip 

opened  his  mouth,  and  starting  from  this  scripture  preached 

the  gospel  of  Jesus  to  him.    As  they  proceeded  on  their 

way,  they  came  to  some  water,  and  the  eunuch  said,  there 

is  water!    What  is  to  prevent  me  being  baptized?    So  he 

ordered  the  chariot  to  stop,  and  both  of  them  stepped  into 

the  water,  and  Philip  baptized  the  eunuch.     When  they 

came  up  from  the  water,  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  caught 

Philip  away,  and  the  eunuch  saw  him  no  longer,  for  he  was 

proceeding  on  his  way  rejoicing.     But  Philip  found  himself 

at  Azotus  and  he  passed  on,  preaching  the  gospel  in  every 

town,  until  he  reached  Caesarea. 

Preach-       Now  those  who  had  been  scattered  by  the  trouble  which 

gSpef   arose  over  Stephen  made  their  way  as  far  as  Phoenicia  and 

to  the    Cyprus  and  Antioch,  preaching  the  word  to  none  except  Jews. 

atAn-    But  some  of  them  were  citizens  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  who 

fffi,     on  reaching  Antioch  began  preaching  to  the  Greeks  also 

^•24-      the  gospel  of  the  Lord  Jesus  and  considerable  numbers 

were  brought  in  for  the  Lord.    In  Antioch  also  the  disciples 

were  first  called  Christians. 

56 


(6-l9a) 


HEROD'S  PERSECUTION  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

Now  about  that  time  King  Herod  laid  violent  hands  on  Her- 
some  members  of  the  church.    James  the  brother  of  John  od'rss 
he  slew  with  the  sword.     Seeing  that  this  was  pleasing  to  cutSn 
the  Jews,  he  went  on  to  seize  Peter  during  the  days  of  un-  ap<S-e 
leavened  bread.    After  arresting  him,  he  put  him  in  prison,  *J» 
handing  him  over  to  a  guard  of  sixteen  soldiers  with  the  in- 
tention after  the  passover  to  bring  him  out  to  the  people. 
So  Peter  was  kept  in  prison  under  guard;  but  earnest 
prayer  for  him  was  offered  to  God  by  the  church. 

Now  on  the  very  night  when  Herod  was  about  to  lead  Peter's 
him  forth  Peter  lay  asleep  between  two  soldiers,  bound  by 
two  chains,  with  guards  keeping  watch  before  the  door. 
And  behold  an  angel  of  the  Lord  stood  before  him  and  a 
light  shone  in  the  cell;  and  striking  Peter  on  the  side  he 
woke  him  and  said,  Rise  quickly!  And  the  fetters  fell 
from  his  hands.  Then  the  angel  said  to  him,  Gird  your- 
self and  put  on  your  sandals,  and  he  did  so.  Then  said  the 
angel,  Throw  your  cloak  about  you  and  follow  me.  So 
Peter  followed  him  out  not  knowing  that  what  the  angel 
was  doing  was  real,  but  supposing  that  he  saw  a  vision. 
When  they  had  passed  the  first  guard  and  the  second,  they 
came  to  the  iron  gate  leading  into  the  city,  which  opened  to 
them  of  its  own  accord.  Then  passing  out  they  proceeded 
through  one  street,  when  suddenly  the  angel  left  him. 
Peter,  coming  to  himself,  said,  Now  I  know  for  certain 
that  the  Lord  hath  sent  his  angel  and  delivered  me  from  the 
hand  of  Herod  and  from  all  that  the  Jewish  people  were 
anticipating.  When  he  appreciated  this  he  went  to  the 
house  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  John  who  was  surnamed 
Mark,  where  a  number  had  assembled  and  were  praying. 
When  he  knocked  at  the  door  of  the  porch,  a  maidservant 
named  Rhoda  came  to  answer  it,  and  as  soon  as  she  rec- 
ognized Peter's  voice,  she  did  not  open  the  door  because 
of  her  joy,  but  ran  and  told  them  that  Peter  was  standing 
in  front  of  the  porch.  They  said  to  her,  You  are  mad ;  but 
she  insisted  that  it  was  so.  It  is  his  angel,  they  said.  But 
Peter  kept  on  knocking.  And  when  they  opened  the  door 
they  knew  that  it  was  he  and  were  amazed.  But  he 
beckoned  to  them  with  his  hand  to  be  silent  and  described 
to  them  how  the  Lord  had  brought  him  out  of  prison.    He 

57 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

also  said,  Tell  this  to  James  and  to  the  brothers.  Then 
going  forth,  he  went  to  another  place.  Now  at  daybreak 
there  was  no  little  commotion  among  the  soldiers  over  what 
could  have  become  of  Peter.  And  when  Herod  had  searched 
for  him  and  could  not  find  him  after  cross-questioning  the 
guards,  he  ordered  them  away  to  execution. 
Her-  Then  Herod  went  down  from  Judea  to  Caesarea  and 

XSth  spent  some  time  there.  As  he  was  highly  incensed  against 
(wba)  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  they  waited  on  him  unan- 
imously and  after  having  secured  the  good  will  of  Blastus 
his  chamberlain  they  begged  the  king  to  make  pea'ce  with 
them  for  their  country  was  dependent  upon  his  for  its  food- 
supply.  So,  on  an  appointed  day,  Herod,  having  arrayed 
himself  in  royal  robes,  took  his  seat  on  the  tribunal  and  was 
haranguing  them.  And  the  people  kept  shouting,  It  is  the 
voice  of  a  god  and  not  of  a  man.  Instantly  an  angel  of  the 
Lord  struck  him,  because  he  had  not  given  due  glory  to 
God,  and,  being  eaten  by  up  worms,  he  died. 

I.    The  Far=Reaching  Effects  of  Stephen's  Martyrdom.    The 

death  of  Stephen  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  evolution  of  primitive 
Christianity.  In  its  background  and  its  influence  this  period  corre- 
sponds in  many  ways  to  the  Babylonian  exile  out  of  which  Judaism 
developed.  It  represented  the  beginning  of  the  absolute  breach  be- 
tween Judaism  and  Christianity  and  the  birth  of  the  Christian  church 
as  an  organization  independent  of  the  Jewish  temple  and  law.  This 
fact  was  not  suspected  by  the  Palestinian  Christians  represented  by  the 
Twelve,  who  still  clung  to  the  Jewish  rites.  As  a  result,  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  driven  from  Jerusalem  nor  to  have  been  troubled  by 
persecution.  From  Acts  81, 14  and  Galatians  l18  it  is  evident  that,  if  they 
left  Jerusalem  at  all,  they  soon  returned  to  make  it  their  permanent 
home.  Only  the  Hellenistic  Christians,  those  who  had  been  born  in 
the  land  of  the  dispersion  and  who,  like  Stephen,  interpreted  Chris- 
tianity in  its  larger  meaning,  were  branded  as  heretics  by  the  Jews  and 
made  the  object  of  their  bitter  persecution.  Some  were  imprisoned 
(Acts  83),  others  publicly  beaten  in  the  Jewish  synagogues  (Acts  2611), 
while  others,  like  Stephen,  suffered  martyrdom  (Acts  2610).  This 
bitter  persecution  extended  even  to  the  cities  outside  of  Jerusalem  and 
appears  to  have  been  chiefly  instigated  by  Hellenistic  Jews,  of  whom 
Paul  of  Tarsus  was  one  of  the  most  active  leaders. 

58 


EFFECTS  OF  STEPHEN'S  MARTYRDOM 

The  second  effect  of  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  was  the  extension  of 
the  work  of  the  Hellenistic  Christian  leaders  like  Philip  beyond  the 
narrow  bounds  of  Judaism.  Now  began  that  world  expansion  of 
Christianity  which  Luke  has  dramatically  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Acts.  Hitherto  the  followers  of  Jesus  have  been  content  to  remain 
in  Jerusalem  awaiting  his  miraculous  return,  but  now  the  Hellenistic 
Christians  took  up  anew  his  preaching  mission.  Many  of  them  simply 
returned  to  their  homes  in  the  great  commercial  centres  along  the 
eastern  Mediterranean,  carrying  with  them  the  spirit  and  teachings 
of  their  Master.  Thus  Christianity,  fanned  into  a  flame  by  persecu- 
tion, spread  northward  and  westward  along  the  great  highways, 
kindling  its  fires  in  the  chief  cities  of  that  ancient  world.  Each  re- 
turning Jewish  Christian  became  a  missionary  as  opportunity  offered. 
Experience  soon  proved,  even  as  it  had  in  Jerusalem,  that  the  leaven 
which  Jesus  placed  in  the  centre  of  Judaism  was  even  more  effective 
among  the  peoples  living  beyond  the  immediate  pale  of  the  temple 
than  in  Jerusalem  itself. 

The  third  effect  of  this  first  great  Christian  dispersion  was  the  rapid 
transformation  of  the  Palestinian  type  of  Christianity  when  trans- 
planted in  new  soil.  It  is  difficult  to  predict  what  would  have  become 
of  Stephen  and  those  who  accepted  his  point  of  view  if  they  had  re- 
mained under  the  shadow  of  the  Jewish  temple  and  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  conservative  Palestinian  Christian  community.  But, 
released  from  the  bonds  of  Judaism  and  in  close  contact  with  the 
broadening  influences  of  the  Graeco-Roman  world,  they  developed  the 
type  of  faith  which  was  destined  to  overleap  all  barriers  and  to  inter- 
pret the  simple  teachings  and  spirit  of  Jesus  in  terms  intelligible  to 
all  mankind. 

II.  The  Samaritan  Field.  There  were  many  reasons  why  the 
Samaritan  field  was  favorable  for  early  Christian  missionary  activity. 
Notwithstanding  the  bitter  fraternal  hatred  with  which  the  Jews  re- 
garded the  Samaritans,  they  looked  upon  them  very  differently  than 
they  did  upon  the  heathen.  The  Jews  despised  the  Samaritans  because 
their  forefathers  had  freely  intermarried  with  the  heathen,  because  they 
had  shown  themselves  ready  at  all  times  to  accept  Greek  and  Roman 
culture,  and  because,  in  accepting  simply  the  Pentateuch  as  their 
scriptures,  they  represented  an  arrested  stage  of  spiritual,  religious, 
and  moral  development.  And  yet  even  the  strictest  Pharisee  did  not 
object  to  eating  with  a  Samaritan.  Common  traditions,  institutions, 
and  worship  bound  the  two  peoples  together.    Each  shared  the  hopes 

59 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  a  coming  Messiah.  Jesus  had  set  the  example  to  his  followers  of 
freely  associating  with  the  Samaritans  and  even  of  preaching  and  min- 
istering to  them.  Above  all,  in  one  of  his  great  parables  he  had  singled 
out  a  Samaritan  as  a  supreme  example  of  neighborliness.  The  Samar- 
itans were  on  the  whole  much  more  open-minded  and  tolerant  than 
the  Jews.  Samaria,  therefore,  was  a  field  which  appealed  strongly  to 
a  Hellenistic  Christian  like  Philip. 

III.  The  Results  of  Philip's  Preaching  in  Samaria.  Philip's 
Greek  name  suggests  that  he  was  a  Hellenist,  as  does  also  his  place 
among  the  seven  appointed  to  guard  the  interests  of  the  Hellenistic 
section  of  the  Jerusalem  church.  Acts  218  states  that  his  home  was  in 
Caesarea,  a  strong  Grseco-Roman  city.  Apparently  his  teachings 
stood  midway  between  those  of  the  native  Judaizing  Christians  and 
those  of  the  extreme  Hellenists.  The  content  of  his  teaching,  as  well 
as  the  fact  that  he  was  a  resident  of  Palestine,  strongly  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  had  personally  seen  and  heard  Jesus.  Later  Chris- 
tian tradition  even  confuses  him  with  Philip  the  disciple.  Another 
tradition  makes  him  one  of  the  Seventy,  who,  according  to  Luke's 
later  version  of  the  sending  out  of  the  Twelve,  were  commanded  to 
proclaim  the  Gospel  to  the  people.  This  tradition  is  probably  based 
on  the  fact  that  Philip's  teachings  and  method  of  work  closely  resemble 
those  adopted  by  Jesus  during  his  Galilean  ministry.  According  to 
the  testimony  of  Acts,  Philip  alone  of  all  the  apostolic  teachers  made 
the  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  central  in  his  preaching.  To  this 
he  added  "the  Gospel  of  the  Name  of  Jesus"  (Acts  812).  In  the  light 
of  the  teachings  of  the  earlier  apostles,  it  is  evident  that  this  peculiar 
phrase  refers  to  the  primitive  interpretation  of  the  character  and  mes- 
sianic work  of  Jesus.  With  the  aid  of  these  meagre  records,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  reconstruct  partially  at  least  the  content  of  Philip's  addresses. 
Evidently  his  preaching  consisted  chiefly  in  a  reiteration  of  the  teach- 
ings of  Jesus.  On  his  lips  may  well  have  been  preserved  many  of  the 
matchless  parables  of  the  kingdom  which  reappear  only  in  Luke's 
gospel. 

The  scene  of  his  work  was  apparently  the  city  of  Samaria  itself,  the 
metropolis  and  capital  of  the  province  which  bore  that  name.  Herod 
the  Great  had  encircled  the  hill  on  which  this  ancient  city  rested  with  a 
great  highway,  flanked  on  either  side  by  stately  colonnades.  The  top 
of  the  hill  he  had  crowned  with  a  great  temple  dedicated  to  Augustus, 
the  foundations  of  which  have  only  recently  been  laid  bare.  Philip 
had  evidently  stopped  at  this  centre  of  Samaritan  life  on  his  way  back 

60 


THE  RESULTS  OF  PHILIP'S  PREACHING 

to  his  home  at  Csesarea,  for  the  city  of  Samaria  lay  on  the  main  high- 
way which  led  northward  and  westward  from  Jerusalem  to  the  sea. 
The  Samaritans  throughout  their  later  history  showed  themselves  a 
simple,  childlike  people,  especially  superstitious  and  susceptible  to 
suggestion.  Philip's  teaching,  like  that  of  Jesus  at  certain  periods  of 
his  ministry,  was  accompanied  by  acts  of  healing  which  appealed  power- 
fully to  the  multitudes.  Those  who  accepted  his  teachings  were  bap- 
tized. Thus  Philip  developed  a  new  and  effective  type  of  evangelism 
which  combined  the  teachings  of  Jesus  and  the  methods  of  John  the 
Baptist  with  a  supreme  devotion  to  the  Master  and  the  declaration 
that  he  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  messianic  hopes  which  the  Samaritans 
shared  in  common  with  their  Jewish  brothers. 

The  passage  in  Acts  814"25  seems  to  imply  that  the  people  of  Samaria 
as  a  whole  had  been  converted  and  that  the  apostles  Peter  and  John 
came  as  the  official  representatives  of  the  Jerusalem  church  to  receive 
these  new  converts  into  its  membership.  The  inference  that  this 
apostolic  sanction  was  necessary  reflects  strongly  the  point  of  view 
and  conceptions  which  first  became  prevalent  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  first  Christian  century.  The  older  record  implies  that  Philip's 
work  was  spontaneous,  almost  accidental,  and  that  the  results  were 
themselves  sufficient  evidence  of  divine  approval.  If  the  apostles  came 
to  Samaria  attracted  by  the  success  of  his  work,  they  probably  came 
not  in  an  official  capacity  but  as  fellow  workers.  To  the  same  later 
churchly  tendency  is  doubtless  due  the  theory  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
came  to  the  Samaritans  only  as  a  result  of  the  laying  on  of  the  apos- 
tles' hands. 

The  underlying  purpose  of  the  story  in  Acts,  however,  is  to  illustrate 
the  significant  fact  that,  although  Christianity  doubtless  often  at- 
tracted impostors,  its  innate  moral  and  spiritual  character  quickly 
revealed  what  was  spurious.  Philip's  work  among  the  Samaritans 
was  new  evidence  of  the  potency  and  adaptability  of  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  and  of  the  Gospel  about  Jesus  that  was  being  rapidly  formulated 
by  his  followers.  There  was  nothing  in  Philip's  work  to  arouse  even 
the  most  conservative  Jewish  Christians;  and  yet  the  prominence  which 
the  narrator  gave  to  Philip's  mission  to  the  Samaritans  indicates  that 
it  represented  an  important  stage  in  the  expansion  of  Christianity. 
It  was  apparently  not  in  itself  permanent  and  far-reaching  largely 
because  of  the  fickle  character  of  the  Samaritans.  Possibly  it  was  also 
because  neither  Philip  nor  Peter  had  Paul's  organizing  and  pastoral 
skill. 

61 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

IV.     Philip's  Conversation  with  the  Ethiopian  Eunuch.    The 

early  apostles  inherited  from  the  Hebrew  prophets  and  from  Jesus 
the  consciousness  of  acting  at  each  important  crisis  in  their  lives  under 
direct  divine  guidance.  This  conviction  is  everywhere  apparent,  not 
only  in  Acts  but  in  the  writings  of  Paul.  The  terms  by  which  this 
guidance  is  described  vary,  as  in  the  present  narrative.  In  Acts  8™  it 
is  stated  that  an  angel  of  the  Lord  gave  the  command  to  Philip.  In  29 
it  was  simply  the  Spirit,  and  in  39  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  that  directed 
his  evangelistic  activity.  In  each  case  the  impulse  evidently  came 
from  within.  The  account  of  Philip's  memorable  conversation  with  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch  implies  that  the  impulse  to  follow  him  came  after 
the  evangelist  had  already  returned  with  the  apostles  to  Jerusalem. 
The  visit  of  a  prominent  proselyte,  such  as  the  treasurer  of  Candace, 
the  queen  of  the  Ethiopians,  to  Jerusalem  must  have  been  quickly 
known  to  all  of  its  inhabitants.  Doubtless  as  a  worshipper  he  also 
brought  rich  gifts  to  the  temple.  Ethiopia  was  the  vast,  mysterious 
region  to  the  south  of  Egypt,  whence  in  the  days  of  Augustus  had 
emerged  a  queen  by  the  name  of  Candace  who  had  attempted  to  drive 
the  Romans  out  of  the  Thebiad,  but  who  had  been  defeated  by  the 
Roman  general  Petronius  in  24  B.C.  and  her  capital,  Meroe,  captured. 
According  to  the  testimony  of  Pliny  the  name  Candace  was  regularly 
borne  by  the  queens  of  Ethiopia,  and  probably  corresponded  to  the 
Egyptian  term  Pharaoh.  As  early  as  300  B.C.  Greek  culture  had  pene- 
trated Ethiopia,  and  this  fact  explains  how  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  was 
able  to  read  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament  which  Philip  found 
in  his  hands.  It  also  reveals  the  influences  which  led  him  to  make  a 
pilgrimage  of  fully  one  thousand  miles  to  the  Jewish  sanctuary  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

The  fact  that  he  was  reading  from  Isaiah  537, 8,  which  describes  the 
suffering  of  Jehovah's  servant,  and  questioning  the  meaning  of  this 
passage,  strongly  suggests  that  while  at  Jerusalem  he  had  come  in 
contact  with  the  teachings  of  the  apostles  and  their  interpretation  of 
this  passage  as  a  direct  reference  to  Jesus.  A  knowledge  of  this  fact 
may  well  have  come  to  Philip  and,  if  so,  it  constituted  one  of  the  chief 
elements  in  the  impulse  which  led  him  to  follow  the  returning  pilgrim. 
It  was  a  case  which  must  have  appealed  strongly  to  Philip's  instincts 
as  an  evangelist.  A  late  tradition  places  the  spring  where  the  Ethio- 
pian official  was  baptized  on  the  narrow  road,  practically  impassable 
for  chariots,  which  leads  southwestward  from  Jerusalem.  An  older 
and  more  probable  tradition,  however,  identifies  it  with  the  copious 

62 


THE  ETHIOPIAN  EUNUCH 

spring  a  little  north  of  Bethzur  on  the  main  road  southward  through 
Hebron  and  Gaza.  The  latter  corresponds  more  perfectly  to  the 
desert  road  definitely  mentioned  in  Acts  826.  In  a  mind  already  pre- 
pared Philip  sowed  the  seeds  of  the  Gospel  and  thereby  added  to  the 
rapidly  growing  ranks  of  the  believers  one  whose  influence  may  go  far 
to  explain  why  before  the  end  of  the  first  Christian  century  in  distant 
Abyssinia  there  was  a  strong  and  flourishing  Christian  community. 
The  conversion  and  baptism  of  the  Ethiopian  was  not  contrary  to  the 
narrow  traditions  accepted  by  the  Palestinian  Christians,  for,  as  a 
proselyte,  he  had  already  been  accepted  within  the  ranks  of  Judaism. 
The  incident,  however,  represents  the  gradual  opening  of  the  door  to 
the  Gentiles  and  was  evidently  reported  for  this  reason. 

With  the  true  spirit  of  the  evangelist,  Philip,  as  he  set  out  again 
for  his  home  at  Caesarea,  stopped  at  Azotus  on  the  coast,  about  twenty 
miles  north  of  Gaza,  and  at  the  other  towns  on  his  way  and  preached 
the  Gospel  at  every  point  until  he  finally  carried  it  to  his  home 
city. 

V.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  to  Antioch.  The  interest  of 
the  author  of  Acts  2*-l 536  in  Paul  and  Peter  led  him  to  introduce  im- 
mediately after  the  story  of  Philip's  baptism  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch 
the  accounts  of  the  way  in  which  these  two  leading  apostles  were  di- 
vinely led  to  see  that  God's  gracious  purpose  included  Gentiles  as  well 
as  Jews.  In  developing  the  symmetrical  plan  of  his  history,  the  author 
recorded  the  mission  of  the  apostles  first  to  the  Jews,  then  to  the 
Samaritans,  then  to  the  Gentiles.  Out  of  deference  to  Paul  and  Peter 
and  in  keeping  with  his  point  of  view,  it  was  also  natural  that  he 
should  give  Paul  and  Peter  the  precedence;  although  Acts  931  plainly 
states  that  the  events  underlying  the  account  of  Peter's  vision  and 
baptism  of  the  Roman  centurion  Cornelius  were  not  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Stephen  but  during  a  period  of  peace,  after  the  church 
had  been  extended  widely  "all  over  Judea,  Galilee,  and  Samaria." 
Fortunately,  however,  Luke  has  cited  definite  evidence  of  what  Paul 
states  in  his  letter  to  the  Galatians  (cf.  28,  9),  namely,  that  the  pioneer 
in  proclaiming  Jesus  to  the  Gentiles  was  not  Peter.  It  was  not  even 
Paul  but  certain  Hellenistic  Christians,  natives  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene, 
who  at  Antioch,  soon  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  "  told  the  Greeks  also 
the  Gospel  of  the  Lord  Jesus."  This  reading  is  supported  by  ex- 
cellent texts  and  is  clearly  implied  by  the  context,  although  in  the 
accepted  version  it  reads  Hellenists  (Greek-speaking  Jews)  instead  of 
Hellenes   (Greeks).     Probably  Luke   wrote  Hellenists,   although   his 

63 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

source  read  Hellenes.  It  was  this  significant  step  in  the  extension  of 
Christianity  to  the  whole  world  which  led  the  author  to  add  in  Acts 
ll22'  ^  that,  when  the  news  of  this  preaching  of  the  Gospel  to  the 
Gentiles  reached  the  church  in  Jerusalem  "they  despatched  Barnabas 
to  Antioch.  When  he  came  and  saw  the  grace  of  God  he  rejoiced  and 
encouraged  them  all  to  remain  loyal  to  the  Lord  with  hearty  pur- 
pose, for  he  was  a  good  man,  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  faith."  The 
narrator  has  apparently  forgotten  for  the  moment  that  Barnabas  was 
a  Hellenist  and  therefore  among  those  who  had  fled  from  Jerusalem 
after  Stephen's  martyrdom.  The  next  verse,  evidently  quoted  from  an 
early  source,  states  that  "Barnabas  went  off  to  Tarsus  to  look  for 
Saul."  Barnabas  was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  Antioch  church.  It  is 
exceedingly  probable  that  this  Cypriot  was  the  leader  of  "the  citizens 
of  Cyprus"  who  first  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Greeks.  Lucius,  an- 
other leader  at  Antioch,  was  a  native  of  Cyrene  (Acts  131).  To  these 
generous,  noble-hearted  Hellenistic  Jews,  Barnabas  and  Lucius,  be- 
yond reasonable  doubt  belongs  the  honor  of  first  breaking  the  bonds 
of  Judaism  and  of  establishing  the  important  precedents  which  Paul 
later  made  an  accepted  principle. 

While  Jerusalem  was  the  first  home  of  Christianity,  profligate,  cos- 
mopolitan Antioch  was  the  birthplace  and  cradle  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tianity from  which  it  radiated  to  all  the  great  cities  of  the  Grseco- 
Roman  world.  It  is  significant  that  here  the  followers  of  Jesus,  who 
had  hitherto  called  themselves  "brothers"  or  "believers"  or  "the 
saints"  and  by  the  Jews  had  been  known  as  the  "Nazarenes"  or  "the 
sect  of  the  Nazarenes,"  were  first  called  Christians.  The  presence  of 
Greeks  in  the  ranks  of  the  new  sect  called  for  a  broader  designation. 
The  term  is  akin  to  those  which  the  Greeks  of  Asia  coined  to  designate 
different  parties,  so  that  there  is  little  doubt  of  its  Hellenistic  and 
Antiochian  origin.  It  also  indicates  that  the  Christians  of  Antioch 
used  the  Greek  language  (for  Christ  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Messiah)  and  that  the  doctrine  that  Jesus  was  the 
promised  Messiah  was  a  distinctive  element  in  their  teaching. 

Thus  within  less  than  five  years  after  the  death  of  Jesus  his  teachings 
had  overleaped  the  narrow  bounds  of  Judaism  and  Palestine  and  were 
the  accepted  rule  of  life  for  a  large  body  of  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews 
in  the  ancient  capital  city  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  arch-persecutor 
of  the  Jewish  race.  From  the  first  the  Antioch  church  appears  to 
have  been  strong  in  numbers  and  leadership  and  to  have  almost  over- 
shadowed the  Jerusalem  community.     The  gifts  of  the  Antioch  Chris- 

64 


CHRISTIANITY  AT  ANTIOCH 

tians  at  the  time  of  the  great  famine  of  46  a.d.  still  further  strengthened 
their  position. 

VI.  The  Persecution  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians  by  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  Luke  or  an  earlier  editor  has  arranged  his  material  in 
Acts  9-12  not  chronologically  but  according  to  a  definite  plan.  Thus 
the  account  of  the  famine  of  46  a.d.  is  introducted  in  ll27-29  before  the 
record  in  121"23  of  the  persecutions  instigated  by  Herod  Agrippa,  which 
culminated  in  the  death  of  James  the  apostle,  probably  at  the  Passover 
of  44  a.d.  The  editor's  object  is  to  complete  his  history  of  the  Jerusalem 
church  that  he  may  devote  the  remainder  of  his  narrative  to  a  detailed 
account  of  Paul's  missionary  work.  He  also  aims  to  give  to  the  apostle 
Peter  the  prominence  that  he  deemed  fitting.  To  this  end  he  intro- 
duces the  popular  stories  in  Acts  931-1118,  which  represent  Peter  as  a 
pioneer  in  proclaiming  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  before  the  record  of 
Paul's  first  missionary  campaign. 

The  first  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  about  32  a.d.  and  was 
directed  chiefly  against  the  Hellenistic  Christians.  In  the  second 
persecution  of  44  the  chief  victims  were  the  Twelve  and  especially 
James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  Peter.  The  years  41-44  were  a  bright 
spot  in  the  otherwise  gloomy,  tempestuous  history  of  Judaism  under 
the  rule  of  Rome.  Among  the  profligate  princes  who  had  been  edu- 
cated at  the  imperial  city  was  a  son  of  Aristobulus,  the  ill-fated  off- 
spring of  the  marriage  of  Herod  the  Great  with  Mariamne  the  Mac- 
cabean  princess.  Herod  Agrippa  I  was  therefore  not  only  a  grandson 
of  Herod  the  Great  but  also  a  prince  of  the  Jewish  royal  line.  As  a 
youth  at  Rome,  he  had  plunged  deeply  into  all  forms  of  vice  which 
that  great  city  presented.  At  forty  he  was  bankrupt  and  in  extreme 
disfavor  even  with  the  dissolute  emperor  Tiberius.  To  escape  im- 
prisonment for  his  debts  and  for  his  crimes,  he  fled  to  Palestine  and 
through  the  intercession  of  his  wife  was  saved  from  starvation  by  his 
relative,  Herod  Antipas,  who  appointed  him  superintendent  of  mar- 
kets at  Tiberias.  He  soon  incurred  the  suspicion  of  Antipas  and  fled 
to  Damascus,  where  he  was  caught  in  the  act  of  accepting  graft  from 
its  citizens.  Thence  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  was  soon  thrown 
into  prison  by  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  but  on  the  accession  of  Caligula 
he  was  made  king  over  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip.  When  Claudius, 
Agrippa' s  boon  companion,  came  to  the  throne  in  41,  he  not  only 
showed  special  favor  to  the  Jews,  giving  them  full  rights  as  citizens 
and  many  privileges,  but  paid  a  debt  that  he  owed  Agrippa  by  giving 
him  all  the  territory  in  Palestine  once  held  by  his  grandfather,  Herod 

65 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  Great.  To  this  concession  he  added  the  right  of  appointing  the 
high  priest  at  Jerusalem.  Although  a  Hellenist  and  immoral  at  heart, 
Herod  Agrippa  assumed  while  at  Jerusalem  the  role  of  an  apostle  of 
strict  Pharisaic  Judaism.  His  zeal  to  figure  as  the  champion  of  his 
people  led  him  to  attack  Christianity  and  to  kill  James  the  apostle. 
Peter  was  also  thrown  into  prison,  but  he  was  probably  not  put  to 
death  because  of  his  well-known  regard  for  Jewish  law  and  institutions. 
James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  who  was  a  still  more  ardent  supporter  of 
the  Jewish  law,  was  apparently  not  even  imprisoned.  The  weight  of 
Herod's  persecution  seems  to  have  fallen  simply  upon  the  leaders  of 
the  Jerusalem  church. 

Acts  124"19  contains  the  popular  account  of  Peter's  remarkable  escape 
from  prison.  The  form  of  the  story  is  probably  determined  by  the 
current  Jewish  belief  that  each  man  had  his  own  guardian  angel  which 
interposed  in  his  behalf  at  critical  moments  in  his  life.  The  detailed 
character  of  the  narrative  leaves  little  doubt  that  it  rests  on  historical 
facts  and  that  Peter  was  enabled,  to  the  utter  surprise  of  his  fellow 
Christians,  to  make  his  escape  from  Jerusalem  on  the  night  preceding 
the  day  set  for  his  trial  before  Herod  Agrippa.  Possibly  the  angel 
of  death  that  smote  Herod  was  the  divine  agent  that  liberated  Peter. 
In  any  case,  the  sudden  death  of  Agrippa  at  Caesarea  put  an  end  to  the 
persecution  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians  by  the  Jews,  for  Judea  again 
came  under  the  control  of  a  Roman  procurator.  Herod  paid  the 
penalty  for  his  earlier  vices  while  attending  one  of  the  great  Hellenic 
games  which  he  had  instituted  at  his  capital  and  of  which  he  was 
very  fond. 

VII.  Peter's  Changed  Attitude  Toward  the  Gentiles.  The 
narrative  in  Acts  12  indicates  that  Peter  fled  from  Jerusalem  and 
probably  took  refuge  in  some  city  outside  the  large  kingdom  which 
Herod  Agrippa  then  ruled.  Antioch  with  its  strong  Christian  church 
would  be  the  most  natural  place  of  refuge.  Unfortunately,  the  nar- 
rative in  Acts  leaves  many  gaps  which  can  be  filled  in  only  conjectur- 
ally.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  when  the  sudden  death  of  Herod 
Agrippa  put  an  end  for  a  time  to  the  active  persecution  of  the  Jeru- 
salem Christians  Peter  ventured  to  return  to  the  borders  of  Palestine 
and  to  take  up  his  abode  at  Joppa.  There  he  would  naturally  come 
into  contact  with  Gentiles  and  Gentile  Christians  and  was  subject 
to  the  broadening  influences  of  an  important  seaport  town.  There 
he  faced  the  great  Western  world  even  as  Paul  later  did  at  Troas.  It 
is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  combined  influence  of  his  recent  per- 

66 


PETER'S  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  THE  GENTILES 

sonal  experience,  his  contact  with  the  Greek  Christians  at  Antioch, 
and  his  new  appreciation  of  the  needs  of  the  Grseco-Roman  world 
were  all  effective  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  vision  recorded  in  the 
terms  of  popular  tradition  in  Acts  10  and  11.  Doubtless  the  problem 
was  presented  to  him  in  concrete  form  in  the  person  of  the  Roman 
centurion  Cornelius.  The  narrative  in  Acts  implies  that  Cornelius, 
like  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  was  already  a  sympathizer  with,  if  not  a 
proselyte  to  Judaism.  It  is  possible  that  he  had  listened  to  the  preach- 
ing of  Philip  the  Evangelist,  whose  home  was  at  Csesarea,  and  that 
Peter  with  his  characteristic  zeal  and  good  sense  could  no  longer  re- 
sist this  appeal,  although  it  was  contrary  to  all  his  earlier  Jewish  train- 
ing. In  the  minds  of  Luke  and  of  the  Palestinian  Christians,  among 
whom  this  tradition  grew  up,  this  change  in  Peter's  attitude  was 
evidently  regarded  as  pre-eminently  important.  In  the  larger  per- 
spective of  apostolic  history  it  was  one  of  the  many  indubitable  proofs 
of  the  potency  and  universality  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  and  of  its  abil- 
ity, not  only  to  transform  the  minds  and  characters  of  the  Gentiles, 
but  to  broaden  those  who  were  rigorously  trained  under  the  Jewish  law. 
VIII.  The  Limitations  and  Significance  of  Early  Palestinian 
Christianity.  There  is  much  that  is  discouraging  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Jerusalem  church  and  of  the  Palestinian  Christianity 
which  grew  up  about  it.  Most  of  the  members  of  the  Jerusalem 
church  appear  to  have  sunk  into  poverty  and  to  have  been  largely 
dependent  for  subsistence  upon  the  gifts  of  the  Western  churches. 
In  their  thinking  and  life  they  were  still  largely  bound  by  the  fetters 
of  Judaism  and  shared  to  a  great  extent  the  series  of  calamities  which 
overtook  the  Jews  of  Palestine  and  culminated,  in  70  a.d.,  in  the 
destruction  of  the  temple.  The  Jewish  persecution  had  also  driven 
from  the  capital  city  the  virile  leaders  in  the  Christian  church,  leaving 
it  sadly  depleted.  One  great  and  inestimable  service,  however,  was 
performed  by  the  Jewish  Christians  who  still  clung  to  the  temple  and 
to  places  so  full  of  rich  associations:  they  collected  and  faithfully 
preserved  the  records  of  the  teachings  and  deeds  of  Jesus.  Without 
this  service  Christianity  would  have  gone  forth  to  its  world-task  sadly 
handicapped.  If  the  Jewish  Christians  of  Palestine  failed  to  appreci- 
ate the  larger  significance  of  the  work  and  teachings  of  Jesus,  they 
faithfully  cherished  the  words  and  memories  of  the  great  Teacher  and 
in  so  doing  have  transmitted  to  us  those  vivid  portraits  of  the  his- 
torical Jesus  without  which  Christianity  would  lack  a  definite,  con- 
crete historical  foundation. 

67 


PAUL'S  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 

§CL.     PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING  AND   CONVERSION 

Pauls  I  am  a  Jew,  born  at  Tarsus  of  Cilicia,  brought  up  in  this 
tk)^"  city>  educated  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel  in  the  strictness  of 
<£cts     our  ancestral  laws,  zealous  for  God. 

You  know  the  story  of  my  past  career  in  Judaism.    You 
Sai  for  ^now  k°w  bitterly  I  persecuted  the  church  of  God  and 
ws  ra-    made  havoc  of  it  and  how  in  zeal  for  my  ancestral  traditions 
tradi-     I  surpassed  many  of  my  own  age  and  race.    I  indeed  be- 
<aa?      lieved  it  was  my  duty  to  do  many  things  in  opposition  to 
i*«C     the  name  of  Jesus  the  Nazarene.    This  I  did  in  Jerusalem. 
26«S)     Armed  with  authority  from  the  high  priests,  I  shut  up  many 
of  the  saints  in  prison.    When  they  were  about  to  be  put 
to  death,  I  voted  against  them.    In  all  the  synagogues  I 
often  punished  them  and  forced  them  to  blaspheme,  and 
in  my  insane  fury  I  persecuted  them  even  to  foreign  cities. 
His  vi-       I  was  travelling  to  Damascus  on  this  business  with  author- 
jesusf    ity  and  a  commission  from  the  high  priest,  when  at  mid- 
26^2     ^ay  on  ^e  roa(*  *  saw  a  ^2nt  from  heaven  more  dazzling 
Gai. '     than  the  sun  flash  around  me  and  those  who  were  trav- 
I1516a)     elling  with  me.    We  all  fell  to  the  ground,  and  I  heard  a 
voice  saying  to  me  in  Hebrew,  '  Saul,  Saul,  why  dost  thou 
persecute  me?    It  is  painful  for  thee  to  kick  against  the 
goad.'     '  Who  art  thou?'  I  asked,  and  the  Lord  said,  *I 
am  Jesus  and  thou  art  persecuting  me.     Now  arise  and 
stand  on  thy  feet,  for  I  appeared  to  thee  in  order  to  ap- 
point thee  to  my  service  as  a  witness  of  what  thou  hast 
seen  and  of  the  visions  thou  wilt  have  of  me.    I  will  de- 
liver thee  from  the  Jewish  people  and  also  from  the  Gen- 
tiles, to  whom  I  send  thee,  that  their  eyes  may  be  opened 
and  that  they  may  turn  from  darkness  to  light,  from  the 
power  of  Satan  to  God,  in  order  that  they  may  receive  the 
forgiveness  of  their  sins  and  an  inheritance  among  those 

68 


PAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS 

sanctified  by  faith  to  me.'  Thus  the  God  who  had  set  me 
apart  from  my  birth  and  called  me  by  his  grace  chose  to 
reveal  his  son  in  me  that  I  might  proclaim  the  good  news 
concerning  him  to  the  Gentiles. 

Forthwith,  instead  of  conferring  with  any  human  being  His 
or  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  see  those  who  had  been  apos-  {See- 
ties  before  me,  I  went  off  into  Arabia,  and  I  came  back  years 
again  to  Damascus.    Then  I  proceeded  to  preach  first  to  !«>.». 
those  at  Damascus.    At  Damascus  the  ethnarch  of  King  26^,11 
Aretas  set  guards  in  the  city  of  the  Damascenes  to  arrest  coj-' 
me,  but  I  was  lowered  in  a  basket  through  the  wall  and  so 
escaped  from  his  hands. 

Then  after  three  years  I  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  become  visit  to 
acquainted  with  Cephas  (Peter).    I  remained  a  fortnight  iSS^ 
with  him.    I  saw  no  other  apostle  except  James  the  brother  {{J*^ 
of  the  Lord.    I  swear  to  you  before  God  that  I  am  telling 
the  truth  in  what  I  write  to  you. 

Then  I  went  to  the  districts  of  Syria  and  Cilicia.    I  was  work 
personally   quite   unknown  to   the   Christian  churches   of  Syria 
Judea;  they  only  heard  that  *  our  former  persecutor  is  now  gjg^ 
preaching  the  faith  of  which  he  once  made  havoc,'  which  C21-24) 
made  them  praise  God  for  me. 

I.  Paul's  Inheritance.  "A  man  small  in  size,  baldheaded, 
bandy-legged,  well  built,  with  eyebrows  meeting,  rather  long  nose, 
and  with  motions  full  of  grace" — such  is  the  traditional  description 
in  the  late  Christian  story  of  Paul  and  Thecla  of  the  man  who,  next 
to  Jesus,  has  done  more  than  any  to  shape  the  religious  faith  of  the 
human  race.  The  familiar  passage  in  II  Corinthians  47  implies  that  in 
appearance  Paul  was  weak  and  insignificant.  At  Lystra  he  was  wor- 
shipped as  Hermes,  the  small,  beardless  god.  The  reference  in  II 
Corinthians  127  indicates  that  he  was  the  victim  of  some  chronic  disease, 
which  he  dramatically  describes  as  "a  thorn  in  the  flesh."  Galatians  6U 
suggests  that  it  was  an  affliction  of  the  eyes:  "See  with  what  letters 
I  am  writing  to  you  with  my  own  hand."  This  implication  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  otherwise  Paul  apparently  always  dictated 
rather  than  wrote  his  letters.  Furthermore,  in  referring  to  his  illness 
in  his  letter  to  the  Galatian  Christians  he  writes:  "I  can  testify  that 
you  would  have  torn  out  your  very  eyes,  if  you  could,  and  given  them 
to  me."    From  his  statement  that  "my  flesh  was  a  trial  to  you"  it 

69 


PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING 

would  seem  that  intense  sick  headaches  was  one  of  the  accompanying 
symptoms  of  his  eye  trouble.  This  was  probably  "the  stake  in  the 
flesh"  to  which  he  elsewhere  refers.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  Paul's 
physical  inheritance  was  insignificant.  It  was  indeed  a  fragile  "  earthen 
vessel "  in  which  his  indomitable  spirit  abode. 

Paul  was  probably  born  about  the  same  time  as  Jesus.  His  family 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  He  himself  bore  the  Jewish  name 
of  Saul,  Israel's  first  great  king.  His  Roman  name  was  Paulus,  or  Paul. 
In  the  book  of  Acts  this  is  used  uniformly  and  appropriately  as  soon 
as  the  description  of  his  active  mission  to  the  Grseco-Roman  world 
begins.  He  evidently  sprang  from  the  well-to-do  working  class. 
His  spontaneous  interests  were  with  the  manual  laborers  rather  than 
with  the  rich  or  learned.  His  father  doubtless  taught  him  his  trade 
of  tent-maker.  Weaving  the  wool  of  the  Cilician  goats  and  making 
it  into  tents  was  an  important  industry  for  the  inhabitants  of  Tarsus. 
From  Acts  2316  we  learn  that  Paul  had  a  married  sister  and  a  nephew  at 
Jerusalem.  Like  Jeremiah,  he  declares  in  Galatians  l15, 16:  "It  was  the 
good  pleasure  of  God  that  separated  me  from  my  mother's  womb  and 
called  me  through  his  grace  and  revealed  his  Son  in  me."  The  Jewish 
colony  at  Tarsus,  like  most  of  the  similar  communities  in  the  great 
cities  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  was  a  small  Jewish  world  in  it- 
self in  the  midst  of  the  complex  Greek  and  pagan  civilization  which 
surrounded  it.  Here  the  youthful  Saul  grew  up  a  strict  Jew,  familiar 
with  all  the  customs  of  his  race  and  zealous  for  its  institutions. 

II.  Paul's  Personality.  Paul  possessed  a  versatile,  mercurial 
temperament.  He  was  subject  to  frequent  reactions,  but,  on  the 
whole,  his  spirit  was  that  of  buoyant  optimism.  In  his  religious  life 
he  was  a  mystic,  given  to  frequent  visions,  which  to  a  great  extent 
determined  his  thought  and  action;  and  yet  in  his  teachings  and 
methods  of  work  he  was  intensely  practical.  To  his  versatility  and 
remarkable  adaptability  was  added  the  characteristic  persistency  of 
his  race.  Nothing  in  heaven  or  earth  could  deter  him  from  the  reali- 
zation of  his  purpose.  Over  burning  deserts  and  bleak  mountain 
passes,  through  perils  of  sea  and  perils  of  land  he  goaded  on  his  weak 
body  until  he  made  it  his  obedient  slave  (I  Cor.  927). 

In  his  letters  and  in  his  acts  he  shows  himself  not  only  courageous, 
strong,  and  enthusiastic  but  a  hard  fighter,  whenever  he  was  sure  that 
he  had  a  just  case.  He  was  absolutely  fearless  and  outspoken  in  his 
denunciation  of  corruption  and  wrong-doing  of  every  kind.  He  was 
governed  by  a  high  sense  of  personal  honor  and  an  intense  moral 

70 


PAUL'S  PERSONALITY 

earnestness.  Like  the  great  earlier  prophets  of  his  race,  he  was  ready 
for  the  sake  of  the  cause  which  he  served  to  give  up  everything:  fam- 
ily, wealth,  reputation,  scholarship,  ease.  He  deliberately  chose 
arduous  toil,  privation,  taunts,  and  danger,  and  at  times  active  per- 
secution and  ultimate  death  rather  than  be  disloyal  to  the  highest 
interests  of  the  Master  whom  he  served.  Through  certain  of  his  more 
personal  letters  it  is  possible  to  look  into  the  very  soul  of  the  man. 
There  we  find  a  playful  humor,  warm  feelings,  deep  sympathies,  and 
strong  friendships.  Love  is  the  impelling  power.  As  he  declares: 
"Love  it  is  that  constrains  me."  With  these  emotional  qualities  Paul 
combined  a  splendid  organizing  ability.  He  was  unquestionably  the 
greatest  statesman  of  the  primitive  Christian  church.  Broad  in  his 
grasp  of  the  world  situation  and  master  of  details  as  well  as  of  men, 
able  to  execute  as  well  as  to  plan — the  present  generation  is  beginning 
to  realize  that  Paul  was  even  greater  in  his  personality  and  work  than 
in  his  teachings. 

III.  Paul's  Early  Environment  at  Tarsus.  Paul  shows  clearly 
the  influence  of  the  many  and  varied  educational  forces  with  which 
he  came  in  contact  during  his  diversified  career.  He  ever  remained  a 
Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews;  but  to  the  powerful  racial  influences  which 
surrounded  the  young  Jew  of  Tarsus  were  added  those  of  the  cosmo- 
politan city  in  which  he  was  born.  This  great  metropolis  of  fully  half 
a  million  inhabitants  was  situated  on  the  River  Cydnus,  ten  miles 
north  from  the  coast,  under  the  shadow  of  the  Taurus  mountains, 
which  rise  to  the  north.  It  commanded  the  famous  southern  gateway 
to  Asia  Minor  which  led  northward  through  the  Cilician  passes. 
Tarsus  was  by  virtue  of  its  natural  situation  a  great  commercial  and 
intellectual  centre,  where  the  ideas  and  civilization  of  the  East  and 
West  met  and  mingled  as  in  no  other  Mediterranean  city,  except 
possibly  in  Ephesus.  It  contained  an  exceedingly  enterprising,  cos- 
mopolitan population,  in  close  touch  with  all  the  Roman  world,  ex- 
ceedingly proud,  as  was  Paul,  of  their  Roman  citizenship.  It  was 
also  the  seat  of  a  great  university,  which  for  generations  had  been  an 
important  centre  of  Stoic  and  Cynic  philosophy.  Strabo's  list  of  the 
famous  philosophers  who  had  either  been  born  or  who  had  studied 
here  is  a  long  one.  Chrysippus,  the  great  Stoic,  was  a  native  of  Tarsus, 
and  the  teacher  of  Cleanthes,  whose  noble  utterance  Paul  aptly  quoted 
in  his  famous  address  at  Athens  before  the  court  of  the  Areopagus.  The 
Stoic  philosopher  Athenadorus,  the  teacher  and  friend  of  Augustus, 
had  been  appointed  by  his  royal  patron  ruler  of  his  native  city,  Tarsus. 

71 


PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING 

The  principles  which  guided  him  in  his  effective  rule  are  quoted  by- 
Seneca  (Concerning  the  Peaceful  Mind,  III):  "So  it  is  requisite  for  us 
in  order  to  prepare  our  minds  for  the  managing  of  the  civic  affairs,  to 
be  always  active.  For  if  one  is  determined  to  make  himself  useful  to 
his  fellow  citizens,  yea,  and  to  all  men,  one  accomplishes  two  things 
at  once.  He  who  places  himself  at  the  centre  of  affairs  and  admin- 
isters them  according  to  his  faculties  benefits  both  the  public  interests 
and  his  own  affairs."  Nestor,  also  a  well-known  philosopher,  suc- 
ceeded Athenadorus  and  was  probably  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment at  Tarsus  during  Paul's  boyhood.  The  University  of  Tarsus 
was  chiefly  attended  by  natives  of  that  city.  This  seat  of  learning 
apparently  exerted  a  powerful  influence  not  only  upon  the  govern- 
ment but  upon  the  life  and  thought  of  all  the  citizens.  They  were 
famous  for  their  ability  to  speak  on  practically  any  subject  without 
previous  preparation.  Strabo  declares:  "Even  the  natives  do  not 
remain  but  travel  abroad  to  complete  their  studies,  and  having  com- 
pleted them  reside  in  foreign  countries"  (XIV,  513, 14).  Tarsus  to  a 
unique  degree  produced  citizens  of  the  world  and  sent  forth  many 
itinerant  preachers  of  the  Stoic  and  Cynic  philosophies.  These  facts 
shed  a  new  light  on  Paul's  declaration:  "I  am  debtor  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians,  both  to  the  wise  and  to  the  foolish" 
(Rom.  I14).  It  is  clear,  however,  that  although  he  was  indirectly 
and  inevitably  influenced  by  the  intellectual  and  cultural  environ- 
ment in  which  he  spent  his  early  youth,  the  attitude  of  the  young 
Jew  of  Tarsus  toward  Greek  learning  was,  on  the  whole,  one  of  dis- 
trust, if  not  contempt.  The  Judaism  of  the  dispersion  was  always  self- 
sufficient.  Though  a  part  of  the  Grseco-Roman  world,  the  Jews 
stood  apart.  Hence,  the  most  powerful  influences  in  Paul's  early- 
youth  were  unquestionably  those  of  his  Jewish  home.  As  at  Jesus' 
home  at  Nazareth,  the  traditions  and  laws  of  his  race  were  closely 
interwoven  with  the  every-day  life  of  the  family.  Among  the  earliest 
words  which  fell  upon  his  childish  ears  were  those  which  voiced  Israel's 
confession  of  faith:  "Hear,  O  Israel,  for  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord." 
Every  waking  hour  was  filled  with  reminders  of  his  people's  remark- 
able past  and  of  the  presence  of  the  supreme  Ruler  and  Father  whom 
they  revered.  His  studies  in  the  local  synagogue  school,  to  which  he 
probably  went  at  about  the  age  of  seven,  further  intensified  the  strong 
religious  influence  of  his  home.  Here  he  was  probably  taught  He- 
brew and  Aramaic,  although  most  of  his  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  come  from  the  Greek  version,  which  was  by  this  time  in 

72 


PAUL'S  ENVIRONMENT  AT  TARSUS 

common  use  among  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion.  His  words  in  Galatians 
l16  strongly  suggest  that,  although  he  was  taught  the  trade  of  tent- 
making,  from  his  earliest  childhood  he  was  consecrated  by  his  parents 
to  the  rabbinate.  This  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  his  appearance  in 
Jerusalem  a  little  later.  Thus  from  his  boyhood  years  the  conscious- 
ness of  a  definite  calling  gave  an  especial  interest  and  objective  to  all 
his  studies.  It  doubtless  also  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  his 
daily  life  so  that  he  was  able  to  declare  that  as  regards  the  righteous- 
ness which  was  in  the  law  he  was  blameless  (Phil.  36"7). 

IV.  Paul's  Training  at  Jerusalem.  Probably  at  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  Paul  went  to  Jerusalem  to  complete  his  preparation  as 
a  rabbi.  In  the  Jewish  world  Jerusalem  was  the  great  central  uni- 
versity, the  home  of  advanced  religious  study.  It  was  to  Judaism 
what  Athens  had  long  been  to  the  Grseco-Roman  world.  The  breadth 
of  Paul's  home  training  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  he  went  to  sit  at 
the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  the  most  progressive  and  prominent  Jewish  teacher 
of  his  age.  This  famous  rabbi  is  said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of 
Hillel.  He  was  then  the  head  of  the  liberal  school  which  that  great 
teacher  had  founded.  He  it  was  who  said:  "Appoint  for  yourself  a 
teacher;  thus  you  will  avoid  what  is  doubtful."  He  was  one  of  the 
very  few  Jewish  teachers  who  dared  depart  from  the  traditions  of  his 
race  and  make  use  of  Greek  literature.  In  Paul's  earlier  years  the 
master  was  probably  much  broader  and  more  tolerant  than  his  dis- 
ciple, but  his  example  later  bore  rich  fruit  in  the  memorable  address 
on  the  Areopagus.  In  the  schools  of  Jerusalem  Paul  was  instructed 
not  only  in  the  current  interpretations  of  the  scriptures  of  his  race 
but  also  in  the  peculiar  rabbinical  methods  which  he  frequently  used  in 
his  later  discourses  and  letters.  These  methods  were  intuitive  rather 
than  logical;  often  fanciful  rather  than  inductive.  Real  or  imaginary 
analogies  were  employed  more  often  than  strictly  scientific  processes 
of  reasoning.  Allegorical  interpretations  were  freely  adopted,  even 
though  they  had  no  support  in  the  original.  Paul's  tendency  to  employ 
these  methods  explains  many  of  the  most  troublesome  passages  in  his 
epistles,  for  notwithstanding  his  complete  conversion  to  the  principles 
of  Christianity,  he  ever  remained  in  his  methods  of  thought  an  oriental 
Jew. 

V.  Paul's  Zeal  as  a  Persecutor.  It  was  not  only  the  teaching 
which  he  received  in  Jerusalem  but  its  atmosphere  which  powerfully 
affected  Paul.  There  he  became  a  Pharisee  of  the  Pharisees  (cf. 
Phil.  36  for  his  own  testimony).     In  him  the  intense  devotion,  the 

73 


PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING 

aspiration,  the  zeal,  and  the  intolerance  of  his  race  was  sublimated. 
His  was  also  in  part  the  zeal  and  intolerance  of  youth.  These  were 
strengthened  by  his  own  natural  characteristics.  He  never  did  any- 
thing half-way.  The  result  was  that,  according  to  his  own  testimony, 
Paul,  the  youthful  candidate  for  the  rabbinate,  became  the  ardent 
persecutor  of  the  Galilean  sect  which  had  suddenly  taken  root  not 
only  in  Jerusalem  but  also  in  certain  other  Syrian  cities.  In  him  the 
Sadducean  high  priests,  Ananus  and  Caiaphas,  ever  suspicious  of  this 
sect  with  its  messianic  leanings,  found  a  valuable  agent.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  given  him  an  open  commission  to  accuse  of  blasphemy — 
a  capital  offense  in  the  Jewish  law — any  whom  he  might  suspect. 
Unfortunately,  Paul  gives  no  details  concerning  the  inner  develop- 
ment which  resulted  thus  tragically.  The  account  of  Stephen's  work 
and  martyrdom  implies  that  he  first  came  into  contact  with  the  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus  in  the  open  discussions  led  by  Stephen  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  in  Jerusalem.  As  has  been  already  noted,  the 
report  of  Stephen's  speech  in  Acts  7  suggests  the  nature  of  these  dis- 
cussions. The  rabbinical  methods  employed  in  interpreting  the  Old 
Testament  scriptures  were  accepted  as  valid  by  Paul  as  well  as  by 
Stephen.  The  great  question  at  issue,  the  character,  work,  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  promised  Messiah,  was  of  the  keenest  interest  to  every 
member  of  the  Pharisaic  party.  About  it  were  focused  their  most 
cherished  political  and  social  and  religious  hopes.  In  the  light  of  our 
later  knowledge  of  Paul,  it  requires  little  imagination  to  picture  the 
fiery  zeal  with  which  he  entered  into  these  discussions.  The  claim  of 
Stephen  and  of  the  other  followers  of  Jesus  that  he  was  indeed  the 
Messiah  seemed  not  only  preposterous  but  blasphemous.  There  is 
no  clear  evidence  that  Paul  had  ever  seen  Jesus  in  the  flesh.  The 
references  in  his  letters  are  evidently  to  his  spiritual  vision.  He  had 
doubtless  often  heard  about  Jesus  and  his  work  from  the  Pharisees 
who  had  dogged  the  footsteps  of  the  Galilean  Teacher;  and  their  re- 
ports would  be  far  from  favorable.  It  was  the  very  leaven  of  the 
Pharisees,  against  which  Jesus  had  so  earnestly  warned  his  disciples, 
that  filled  the  mind  of  Paul.  Jesus'  critical  attitude  toward  much 
of  the  Mosaic  law  and  especially  toward  the  traditions  of  the  fathers 
was  enough  in  itself  to  condemn  him  in  the  eyes  of  an  enthusiastic 
young  Pharisee.  Instinctive  antagonism  explains  why  Paul,  even  if 
he  had  the  opportunity  to  see  and  hear  Jesus,  probably  never  im- 
proved it.  So  to  one  like  Paul,  familiar  with  the  Deuteronomic  law, 
which  declared  that  "he  who  is  hanged  is  accused  of  God"  (Deut. 

74 


PAUL'S  ZEAL  AS  A  PERSECUTOR 

2123)  Jesus'  ignominious  death  was  in  itself  absolute  proof  of  the  flagrant 
impiety  as  well  as  folly  of  those  who  claimed  that  he  was  the  Messiah. 
That  this  very  passage  was  earlier  one  of  Paul's  chief  stumbling- 
blocks  is  indicated  by  the  way  in  which  he  refers  to  it  in  his  letter  to 
the  Galatians  (313>  14).  To  their  seeming  impiety  the  followers  of  Jesus 
added  the  still  more  blasphemous  claim  that  he  yet  lived  and  had  been 
exalted  to  the  right  hand  of  God,  and  they  adduced  as  proof  the  as- 
tonishing statement  that  since  his  crucifixion  he  had  repeatedly  ap- 
peared to  them.  The  old  law  of  Deuteronomy  seemed  to  point  the 
way  of  duty  very  clearly  to  Paul:  "If  thy  brother,  the  son  of  thy 
mother,  or  thy  son,  or  thy  daughter  or  the  wife  of  thy  bosom,  or  thy 
friend,  who  is  as  thy  own  life,  teach  heresy,  thou  shalt  not  listen  to 
him  nor  pity  him,  but  thou  shalt  surely  kill  him;  thy  hand  shall  be  first 
upon  him  to  put  him  to  death  and  afterward  the  hand  of  all  the 
people.  And  thou  shalt  stone  him  to  death  with  stones."  To  one 
who  was  taught  to  believe,  as  were  the  disciples  of  the  rabbis,  that  "he 
who  asserts  that  the  law  is  not  from  Heaven  has  no  part  in  the  future 
world,"  the  command  of  God  seemed  clear  though  its  execution  was 
repugnant  to  all  the  best  impulses  implanted  in  the  heart  of  man. 
Some  such  process  of  thought  alone  explains  why  the  naturally  kind- 
hearted,  impulsive,  conscientious  Jew  of  Tarsus  became  an  arch-per- 
secutor of  the  humble  followers  of  Jesus.  Possibly  the  bitter  heat 
engendered  by  the  discussions  in  the  synagogue  of  the  Cilicians  also 
explains  why  Paul  first  consented  to  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  the  leader 
of  the  opposition,  and  then,  having  thus  committed  himself  to  an 
extreme  position,  threw  himself  into  the  persecution  with  his  char- 
acteristic vehemence. 

VI.  The  Four  Accounts  of  Paul's  Conversion.  It  is  significant 
that  the  New  Testament  contains  four  variant  accounts  of  what  was  in 
its  far-reaching  consequences  the  most  important  event  in  the  history 
of  the  early  Christian  church.  The  author  of  Acts  has  preserved 
three  of  them,  although  no  one  agrees  with  another  in  all  details. 
Here  the  analogies  are  close  with  the  stories  which  gather  about  the 
important  events  of  Old  Testament  history,  as,  for  example,  Moses' 
prophetic  call  or  the  exodus  from  Egypt.  The  oldest  account  is  the 
briefest  and  comes  directly  from  Paul:  "God,  who  set  me  apart  from 
my  birth  and  called  me  by  his  grace,  chose  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me 
that  I  might  proclaim  the  good  news  concerning  him  to  the  Gentiles" 
(Gal.  I15, 16).  To  this  he  adds  in  connection  with  his  account  of  the  res- 
urrection visions  of  Jesus  in  I  Corinthians  (151"8) :  "And  last  of  all,  as  to 

75 


PAUL'S  CONVERSION 

a  child  untimely  born,  he  appeared  to  me  also."  Paul's  words  leave 
no  doubt  that  his  conversion  was  a  real  spiritual  experience,  as  is  evinced 
by  his  changed  activity  and  attitude.  The  account  in  Acts  26  is  evi- 
dently the  oldest  of  the  three  traditions  presented  by  Luke.  It  agrees 
substantially  with  Paul's  own  testimony,  but  it  makes  the  revelation 
more  objective.  The  time  and  place  are  indicated  and,  as  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  call  of  Isaiah  or  Jeremiah,  the  divine  revelation  takes 
the  form  of  a  dialogue.  The  entirely  new  element  is  the  statement 
that  a  marvellous  flashing  light  was  seen  not  only  by  Paul  but  also  by 
his  companions.  The  second  account  in  Acts  22  agrees  substantially 
with  that  in  Acts  26,  except  that  it  states  that,  while  Paul's  companions 
saw  the  light,  they  did  not  hear  the  voice  that  spoke  to  him.  It  also 
adds  that  Paul  was  divinely  commanded  to  go  to  Damascus,  where 
he  would  be  told  what  he  was  destined  to  do  and  that  this  promise  was 
fulfilled  through  the  instrumentality  of  a  certain  Ananias,  who  bap- 
tized him  and  in  the  presence  of  whom  he  regained  his  lost  sight.  It 
also  states  that  he  returned  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  had  another  divine 
vision  and  a  renewal  of  his  commission  to  go  to  the  Gentiles.  The 
third  account  in  Acts  9  is  evidently  in  part  a  composite  of  the  two 
accounts  in  22  and  26.  It  differs,  however,  in  stating  that  Paul's 
companions  heard  the  divine  voice  but  saw  no  one.  It  adds  that  a 
special  vision  was  vouchsafed  Ananias  very  similar  to  that  attributed 
to  Peter  in  Acts  10.  It  also  states  that  after  conducting  an  active 
mission  in  Damascus  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  and  entered  into  open 
discussions  with  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  Paul's  own  testimony,  however, 
is  that  he  remained  but  fifteen  days  in  Jerusalem  and  saw  no  apostle 
except  Peter  and  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus.  The  minor  variations 
in  these  versions  indicate  clearly  that  in  the  later  tradition  imagination 
has  furnished  many  details.  The  tendency  in  each  succeeding  genera- 
tion was  to  interpret  Paul's  inner  vision  more  objectively  and  super- 
naturally. 

VII.  Paul's  Transforming  Psychological  Experience.  Paul 
and  the  early  Christian  historians  inevitably  described  his  conversion 
in  terms  of  the  first-century  psychology  and  belief.  Greek  and  Roman, 
as  well  as  Jew,  then  firmly  believed  that  the  spirit  of  the  departed 
could  become  visible  to  the  human  eye  and  exert  a  powerful  influence 
in  the  affairs  of  men  (cf.  Morley,  Greek  and  Roman  Ghost  Stories). 
They  also  believed  that  the  gods  could  enter  in  and  dwell  in  men 
and  direct  their  thoughts  and  words  and  acts.  Thus  they  interpreted 
the  acts  of  the  priestess  at  the  Delphic  oracle  and  the  ecstatic  deeds 

76 


PAUL'S  TRANSFORMING  EXPERIENCE 

and  utterances  of  the  devotees  of  the  various  mystery  religions.  This 
idea  was  already  an  established  tenet  in  Judaism,  as  well  as  in  other 
oriental  religions.  While  these  beliefs  naturally  determine  the  form 
in  which  Paul  describes  his  experience,  they  do  not  conceal  the  ulti- 
mate reality.  The  task  of  the  modern  age  is  to  interpret  it  into  the 
terms  of  present-day  psychology.  In  his  epistles,  and  especially 
Romans,  Paul  throws  much  light  upon  the  inner  struggle  that  pre- 
ceded his  conversion.  In  the  first  eight  chapters  of  Romans  he  tells  of 
the  bitter  dissatisfaction  which  came  to  him  when  he  discovered  that 
even  the  law  which  he  so  ardently  championed  could  not  free  him  from 
sin.  In  the  face  of  the  dying  Stephen  he  saw  reflected  the  peace  and 
joy  which  he  himself  passionately  coveted.  The  fierce  zeal  with  which 
he  persecuted  the  Christians  suggests  the  acts  of  a  fanatic,  dimly  con- 
scious of  the  weakness  of  his  position.  Like  a  refractory  ox,  he  wa3 
kicking  against  the  goad.  Not  being  an  ox  but  an  intelligent  being, 
the  knowledge  of  how  unreasonable  was  his  action  only  added  to  hi3 
fury.  Moreover,  Paul  was  not  governed  primarily  by  his  intellect 
but  by  his  intuition  and  emotions.  The  devotion  and  forbearance  of 
Stephen  and  of  other  Christian  martyrs,  who  followed  his  heroic  ex- 
ample, undoubtedly  appealed  powerfully  and  in  the  end  irresistibly  to 
the  naturally  tender  heart  of  Paul.  Here  was  something  that  Phar- 
isaism lacked.  Could  it  be  that  the  teacher,  in  loyalty  to  whom  his 
followers  serenely  faced  death,  was  indeed  the  promised  Saviour  of 
the  race?  Was  the  way  of  the  cross,  after  all,  the  way  of  salvation? 
If,  as  his  disciples  claimed,  Jesus  still  lived,  then  he  had  indeed  broken 
the  power  of  the  ancient  curse  upon  any  one  that  hangs  upon  a  tree 
and  had  the  unmistakable  approval  of  God  himself.  Such  thoughts 
must  have  been  in  the  mind  of  Paul  when  the  great  transformation 
came  to  him.  Later  tradition  is  probably  right  in  stating  that  this 
came  suddenly.  This  rapid  transformation  was  in  perfect  keeping 
with  Paul's  temperament  and  character.  It  is  closely  analogous  to 
the  epoch-making  moments  in  the  life  of  the  ancient  prophets  like 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.  It  came  as  a  sudden,  marvellous  vision  of  the 
crucified  and  risen  Lord.  What  the  disciples  had  seen,  Paul  now  be- 
held. Possibly  in  keeping  with  the  psychology  of  his  day,  he  himself 
believed  that  he  saw  and  heard  a  visible,  objective  personality.  Cer- 
tainly those  to  whom  he  related  his  experience  soon  believed  that  he 
had.  But  the  essential  fact  in  Paul's  experience  was,  as  he  declares, 
that  God  "had  revealed  his  son  in  him."  Henceforth  the  Spirit  of 
Jesus  became  the  abiding,  guiding  force  in  Paul's  life.    All  of  his  sub- 

77 


PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING 

sequent  career  bears  testimony  to  the  reality  of  this  fact.  He  clearly 
had  in  mind  his  own  transforming  experience  when  he  declared:  "We 
all  with  unveiled  face,  reflecting  as  a  mirror  the  glory  of  the  Lord,  are 
transformed  into  the  same  likeness  as  himself  from  glory  to  glory."  To 
a  man  with  Paul's  earnest,  devoted  spirit,  such  a  revelation  was  an 
imperative,  divine  call  to  service,  "for  God  who  said,  'Let  light  shine 
out  of  darkness/  has  shone  within  my  heart  to  illuminate  men  with 
the  knowledge  of  (rod's  glory  in  the  face  of  Christ."  Paul  also  saw 
further  than  Jesus'  disciples,  for  he  recognized  that  through  him  the 
old  law  was  set  aside  and  a  new  way  of  finding  God  and  the  richness 
of  life  was  provided  for  Gentile  as  well  as  Jew.  Paul's  personal  in- 
terests, as  well  as  the  divine  will,  impelled  him  to  proclaim  that  Gospel 
to  the  great  world  that  lay  outside  of  Palestine  which  he  knew  so 
well  and  which,  like  himself,  was  craving  and  seeking  for  that  fellow- 
ship with  the  eternal  Father,  that  sense  of  brotherhood  with  the  human 
race,  and  that  ideal  of  service  which  Jesus  had  not  only  taught  but 
realized. 

VIII.  Paul's  First  Fifteen  Years  of  Missionary  Activity.  The 
narrative  of  Acts  is  almost  silent  regarding  the  fifteen  years  immedi- 
ately following  Paul's  conversion.  The  chief  interest  of  the  writers 
which  Luke  quotes  regarding  this  period  is  in  the  Jerusalem  church 
and  the  authority  of  the  apostles.  Luke  does  cite  certain  traditions 
which  represent  Paul  as  working  at  Jerusalem  in  conjunction  with  the 
apostles,  but  this  is  belied  by  Paul's  own  testimony.  The  one  point 
in  which  Luke's  evidence  is  supported  by  that  of  Paul  is  that  he  labored 
during  the  latter  part  of  this  period  in  his  native  province  of  Cilicia. 
Meagre  though  his  allusions  are,  Paul  is  practically  our  only  informant 
regarding  these  early  years.  From  the  references  in  his  epistles  it  is 
possible  to  develop  at  least  the  order  of  events  with  reasonable  as- 
surance. Paul's  conversion  must  have  taken  place  before  36  A.D., 
when  Caiaphas  was  deposed.  The  year  33,  three  or  four  years  after  the 
death  of  Jesus,  is  a  most  probable  date.  Three  years  he  appears  to 
have  worked  in  the  neighborhood  of  Damascus  before  his  expulsion 
by  the  ethnarch  of  the  Arabian  king  Aretas  IV.  The  exact  way  in 
which  this  was  accomplished  and  the  extent  of  the  power  of  Aretas  are 
not  known.  Paul's  hasty,  secret  visit  to  Peter  at  Jerusalem  evidently 
followed  closely  after  his  escape  from  Damascus.  The  next  important 
conference  with  Peter  fourteen  years  later  (Gal.  21)  would  therefore 
be  about  47  a.d.,  immediately  before  his  first  missionary  campaign. 
This  conclusion  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  data  in  Acts,  which  in- 

78 


PAUL'S  FIRST  FIFTEEN  YEARS  OF  ACTIVITY 

dicates  that  46  was  the  year  spent  by  Paul  at  Antioch  before  he  set  out 
on  that  campaign. 

The  period  of  retirement  in  Arabia  was  clearly  a  period  of  recon- 
struction, spent  not  with  men  or  apostles,  but  alone  with  God.  Then 
Paul  adjusted  himself  to  his  new  vision  of  Jesus  and  to  his  new  task. 
Immediately  after  this  he  began  his  missionary  work  in  Damascus, 
preaching  undoubtedly  to  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews.  That  he  did  so 
and  that  his  work  met  with  some  success  alone  explain  the  attempt 
of  the  ethnarch  of  the  Arabian  king  to  arrest  him.  The  two  weeks 
spent  quietly  at  Jerusalem  with  Peter  and  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus, 
gave  to  an  alert,  devoted  disciple  like  Paul  a  marvellous  opportunity 
to  become  intimately  acquainted  with  the  facts  regarding  the  life 
and  especially  with  the  teachings  of  Jesus.  It,  as  well  as  later  inter- 
views, furnishes  the  explanation  of  that  consciousness  of  speaking  on 
the  basis  of  Jesus'  direct  authority  which  is  evident  throughout  Paul's 
letters. 

The  next  twelve  years  were  devoted  to  missionary  work  in  Syria 
and  Cilicia.  Gradually  Paul  worked  back  to  his  native  city  Tarsus. 
These  years  appear  to  have  been  rich  in  experience.  In  II  Corinthians 
(ll23"27)  he  has  given  a  word-picture  of  the  trials  and  deeds  of  heroism 
which  belong  chiefly  to  these  years:  "I  have  often  been  at  the  point 
of  death.  Five  times  I  have  received  forty  lashes  (all  but  one)  from 
the  Jews,  three  times  have  I  been  beaten;  once  I  was  stoned,  three 
times  shipwrecked;  I  have  been  adrift  on  the  sea  a  night  and  a  day, 
in  many  journeys,  in  perils  from  rivers,  in  perils  from  robbers,  in  perils 
from  Jews  and  Gentiles,  in  peril  of  town  and  desert,  in  perils  on  the 
sea,  in  perils  among  false  brothers,  through  labor  and  hardships,  through 
many  a  sleepless  night,  through  hunger  and  thirst,  often  starving, 
cold  and  ill-clad."  It  was  in  this  school  of  strenuous,  heroic  service 
that  the  world's  greatest  missionary  was  trained.  During  these 
arduous  years  Paul  does  not  seem  to  have  met  with  large  success. 
Nowhere  in  his  letters  does  he  refer  to  the  results  of  this  work.  At 
least  it  was  not  sufficient  to  arouse  the  alarm  of  the  conservative  Jewish 
Christians  at  Jerusalem.  Only  to  their  ears  had  come  the  vague, 
though  cheering  report  that  "our  former  persecutor  is  now  preaching 
the  faith  of  which  he  once  made  havoc."  This  early  work  was  sig- 
nificant because  it  was  an  earnest  of  greater  things.  Like  his  Master, 
Paul  found  joy  in  the  midst  of  pain  and  persecution.  In  II  Corinthians 
(121"4)  he  tells  of  one  of  the  glorious  visions  that  illumined  his  arduous 
way.    He  dates  it  about  40  a.d.,  when  he  was  in  the  midst  of  his  work 

79 


PAUL'S  EARLY  TRAINING 

in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  He  declares  that  he  was  caught  up  into  the 
third  heaven.  He  frankly  confesses  that  he  does  not  know  whether 
it  was  in  the  body  or  not  that  he  was  thus  transported  up  to  paradise, 
but  he  does  know  that  he  heard  sacred  secrets  which  no  human  lips 
can  repeat.  That  this  experience  was  to  him  of  profound  spiritual  im- 
port is  clear  from  the  way  in  which  he  refers  to  it  and  from  its  effect 
upon  him  and  upon  his  life-work.  In  the  same  connection  he  speaks 
of  his  superabundance  of  visions,  indicating  that  these  experiences 
were  frequent.  They  reveal  the  mystical  side  of  Paul's  nature,  that 
capacity  for  personal  fellowship  with  God  which  was  the  perennial 
source  of  his  power.  The  vivid  consciousness  of  God  working  in  and 
through  him  was  the  irresistible  force  that  drove  him  on  through 
seemingly  insuperable  obstacles  and  perils.  Even  though  its  mani- 
festations reflect  the  unscientific  psychological  ideas  of  the  age,  it  was 
supremely  vital  and  real  to  Paul  and  through  him  to  the  human  race, 
for  it  meant  personal  redemption,  liberty,  and  life. 

§  CLI.    PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

Now  Barnabas  went  off  to  Tarsus  to  try  to  find  Saul. 
And  when  he  found  him,  he  brought  him  to  Antioch,  where 
for  a  whole  year  they  were  connected  with  the  church  there 
and  taught  a  large  number  of  people. 

During  these  days  certain  prophets  came  down  from 
Jerusalem  to  Antioch.  One  of  whom,  named  Agabus, 
showed  by  the  Spirit  that  a  great  famine  was  about  to  come 
throughout  the  whole  world  (the  famine  which  came  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius).  So  the  disciples,  each  as  he  was 
able,  decided  to  send  relief  to  the  brothers  living  in  Judea. 
This  they  did,  sending  their  contributions  to  the  elders  by 
Barnabas  and  Saul.  After  Barnabas  and  Saul  had  per- 
formed their  mission,  they  returned  from  Jerusalem  bring- 
ing with  them  John,  surnamed  Mark. 
cc>m-  In  the  church  at  Antioch  there  were  prophets  and  teachers, 
MB™.  Barnabas,  Symeon  (called  Niger)  and  Lucius  the  Cyrenian, 
besides  Manaen  (a  playmate  of  Herod  the  tetrarch)  and 
Saul.  As  they  were  worshipping  the  Lord  and  fasting,  the 
Holy  Spirit  said,  Set  me  apart  Barnabas  and  Saul  for  the 
work  to  which  I  have  called  them.  Then  after  fasting  and 
praying  and  laying  their  hands  on  them  they  let  them  go.' 

80 


WORK  OF  BARNABAS  AND  PAUL  IN  CYPRUS 

So  they,  being  thus  sent  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  went  down  Their 
to  Seleucia  and  from  there  they  sailed  to  Cyprus.  On  g^cy- 
reaching  Salamis  they  proclaimed  the  word  of  God  in  the  pnw 
Jewish  synagogues,  and  they  had  John  [Mark]  as  then- 
assistant.  And  when  they  had  gone  through  the  whole  is- 
land as  far  as  Paphos,  they  met  with  a  Jewish  sorcerer  and 
false  prophet  called  Bar- Jesus;  he  was  with  the  proconsul 
Sergius  Paulus,  an  intelligent  man,  who  called  for  Barnabas 
and  Saul  and  asked  to  hear  the  word  of  God.  But  Elymas 
the  sorcerer  (for  that  is  the  translation  of  his  name)  tried 
to  divert  the  proconsul  from  the  faith.  So  Saul  (who  is 
also  called  Paul),  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  looked  in- 
tently at  him  and  said,  You  son  of  the  devil,  you  enemy  of 
all  that  is  right,  full  of  craftiness  and  cunning,  will  you 
never  stop  diverting  the  straight  paths  of  the  Lord  ?  See, 
even  now  the  Lord's  hand  will  fall  on  you,  and  you  will 
be  blind,  unable  for  a  time  to  see  the  sun.  Instantly  a 
mist  and  a  darkness  fell  upon  him,  and  he  groped  about 
for  someone  to  take  him  by  the  hand.  Then  the  pro- 
consul, when  he  saw  what  had  happened  believed,  being 
astounded  at  the  teaching  of  the  Lord. 

Setting  sail  from  Paphos,  Paul  and  his  companions  came  Jour- 
to  Perga  in  Pamphylia.    John  left  them  and  went  back  to  a%J° 
Jerusalem,  but  they,  passing  on  from  Perga,  arrived  at  *}«* 
Pisidian  Antioch. 

On  the  sabbath  they  went  into  the  synagogue  and  sat  Pauls 
down;    and,  after  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  prophets,  to(tEeS 
the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  sent  word  to  them,  Brothers,  jgj80' 
if  you  have  any  word  of  encouragement  for  the  people,  say  tioch 
it.     So  Paul  stood  up  and,  motioning  with  his  hand,  said,   (Mb^1) 
Listen,  men  of  Israel  and  you  who  revere  God.    The  God 
of  this  people  Israel  chose  our  fathers ;  he  made  the  people 
great  during  their  stay  in  the  land  of  Egypt  and  with  uplifted 
arm  led  them  out  of  it.    For  about  forty  years  he  fed  them 
as  a  nursing  mother  in  the  desert,  and  after  destroying 
seven  nations  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  he  gave  them  men- 
land  as  an  inheritance  for  about  four  hundred  and  fifty 
years.    After  that  he  gave  them  judges  down  to  the  time 
of  the  prophet  Samuel.    Then  it  was  that  they  asked  for 
a  king,  and  God  gave  them  for  forty  years  Saul,  the  son  of 

81 


PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

Kish,  who  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  After  de- 
posing him,  he  raised  up  David  to  be  their  king,  to  whom 
he  bore  this  testimony:  *  In  David  the  son  of  Jesse  I  have 
found  a  man  after  my  own  heart,  who  will  obey  all  my 
will.'  From  his  offspring  God  brought  to  Israel,  as  he  had 
promised,  a  Saviour,  even  Jesus,  before  whose  coming 
John  had  already  preached  a  baptism  of  repentance  for 
all  the  people  of  Israel.  And  as  John  was  closing  his 
career  he  often  said,  What  do  you  consider  that  I  am?  I 
am  not  he.  But  there  is  one  coming  after  me.  I  am  not 
worthy  to  unloose  the  sandals  on  his  feet!  Brothers,  sons 
of  Abraham's  race  and  all  among  you  who  revere  God,  the 
message  of  this  salvation  has  been  sent  to  us.  The  in- 
habitants of  Jerusalem  and  their  rulers,  by  condemning 
him  in  their  ignorance,  fulfilled  the  words  of  the  prophets 
which  are  read  every  sabbath.  Though  they  could  find 
him  guilty  of  no  crime  that  deserved  death,  they  asked 
Pilate  to  have  him  put  to  death.  After  they  had  carried 
out  all  that  had  been  written  of  him,  they  took  him  down 
from  the  cross  and  laid  him  in  a  tomb.  But  God  raised 
him  from  the  dead.  For  many  days  he  was  seen  by  those 
who  had  come  up  with  him  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem; 
they  are  now  his  witnesses  to  the  people.  And  we  preach 
to  you  the  glad  news  that  God  hath  fulfilled  the  promise 
made  to  our  forefathers  by  raising  up  Jesus.  As  it  is 
written  in  the  second  psalm: 

Thou  art  my  son, 

To-day  have  I  become  thy  father. 

And  as  a  proof  that  he  has  raised  him  from  the  dead,  never 
to  return  to  corruption,  he  hath  said,  I  will  give  you  holy 
and  trustworthy  promises  made  to  David;  in  another 
psalm  he  saith: 

For  thou  wilt  not  let  thy  Holy  One  see  corruption. 

Of  course  David,  after  serving  his  own  generation  in 
accord  with  God's  purpose,  died  and  was  laid  beside  his 
fathers;  he  saw  corruption,  but  he  whom  God  raised  did 

82 


PAUL'S  ADDRESS  AT  ANTIOCH 

not  see  corruption.  Therefore  you  must  understand,  my 
brothers,  that  forgiveness  of  sins  is  proclaimed  to  you 
through  him,  and  that  by  him  everyone  who  believes  is 
absolved  from  all  that  the  law  of  Moses  could  not  absolve 
you.    Beware  then  lest  the  prophetic  saying  applies  to  you: 

Behold,  ye  who  are  disdainful,  be  astonished  and  perish, 
For  in  your  days  I  am  carrying  out  a  work — 
A  work  which  you  will  never  believe,  though  one  were  to 
explain  it  to  you. 

As  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  going  out,  the  people  begged  itsim- 

to  have  all  this  repeated  to  them  on  the  following  sabbath.  ^i' 

And  when  the  synagogue  broke  up,  a  number  of  the  Jews  effect 
and  the  devout  proselytes  followed  Paul  and  Barnabas  who 
talked  to  them  and  urged  them  to  hold  fast  to  the  grace 
of  God. 

And  on  the  next  sabbath  nearly  all  the  city  gathered  to  oPPo- 
hear  the  word  of  the  Lord.    But  when  the  Jews  saw  the  ofthe 
crowds,  they  were  filled  with  jealousy;  they  began  to  con-  -j^sthe 
tradict  what  Paul  said  and  to  abuse  him.     So  Paul  and  P?ocia- 
Barnabas  spoke  out  boldly.    The  word  of  God,  they  said,  g^J1 
had  to  be  spoken  to  you  first;  but  since  you  spurn  it  and  g*^1 
judge  yourselves  unworthy  of  eternal  life,  well,  here  we  Gen- 
turn  to  the  Gentiles.    For  this  is  the  Lord's  command  to  $£9 
us: 

I  have  set  you  to  be  a  light  for  the  Gentiles, 
To  bring  salvation  to  the  end  of  the  earth. 

When  the  Gentiles  heard  this  they  rejoiced  and  glorified 
the  word  of  the  Lord  and  believed,  that  is,  all  who  had 
been  ordained  to  eternal  life;  and  the  word  of  the  Lord 
was  spread  abroad  throughout  the  whole  country.  But  the 
Jews  incited  the  devout  women  of  high  rank  and  the  lead- 
ing men  in  the  town,  who  stirred  up  persecution  against 
Paul  and  Barnabas  and  drove  them  out  of  their  territory. 
But  they  shook  the  dust  off  their  feet  as  a  protest  against 
them  and  went  to  Iconium.  The  disciples,  however,  were 
filled  with  joy  and  the  Holy  Spirit. 

83 


of  the 


man 
at 


PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

Peree-        At  Iconium  the  same  thing  happened.    They  went  into 
SicS-    the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  and  spoke  in  such  a  way  that  a 
(i4^>     &e*&  number  both  of  Jews  and  Greeks  believed.    But  the 
refractory  Jews  stirred  up  and  exasperated  the  feeling  of 
the  Gentiles  against  the  brothers.    Yet  they  spent  a  con- 
siderable time,  speaking  boldly  about  the  Lord,  who  at- 
tested the  word  of  his  grace  by  allowing  signs  and  wonders 
to  be  performed  by  them.    The  populace   of  the  town, 
however,  was  divided ;  some  sided  with  the  Jews,  some  with 
the  apostles.    But,  when  there  was  a  hostile  movement  of 
Gentiles  and  Jews  along  with  their  rulers  to  insult  and  stone 
them,  the  apostles  escaped  to  the  Lycaonian  towns  of  Lystra 
and  Derbe  and  the  surrounding  country;   there  they  con- 
tinued to  preach  the  gospel. 
The  At  Lystra  there  was  a  man  sitting,  who  was  powerless  in 

tfttb  his  feet,  a  lame  man  unable  to  walk  from  birth.  He  heard 
j^^g  Paul  speaking,  and  Paul,  gazing  intently  at  him  and  recog- 
nizing that  he  had  faith  enough  to  make  him  well,  said  in 
a  loud  voice,  Stand  upright  on  your  feet.  So  he  sprang  up 
Lystra  and  began  to  walk.  Now  when  the  crowds  saw  what 
Paul  had  done,  they  shouted  in  the  Lycaonian  language, 
The  gods  have  come  down  to  us  in  human  form !  Barnabas 
they  called  Zeus,  and  Paul  Hermes,  since  he  was  the  chief 
speaker.  Indeed  the  priest  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  in  front 
of  the  town  brought  oxen  and  garlands  to  the  gates,  in- 
tending to  offer  sacrifice  along  with  the  crowds.  But  when 
the  apostles,  Barnabas  and  Paul,  heard  this  they  tore  their 
clothes  and  rushed  out  into  the  crowd,  shouting,  Men, 
what  is  this  you  are  doing?  We  are  but  men,  with  natures 
like  your  own!  The  gospel  we  are  preaching  to  you  is  to 
turn  you  from  these  unreal  things  to  the  living  God  who 
made  the  heaven,  the  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is. 
In  past  ages  he  allowed  all  nations  to  go  their  own  ways, 
though  as  the  bountiful  giver  he  did  not  leave  himself 
without  a  witness,  giving  you  rain  from  heaven  and  fruit- 
ful seasons,  giving  you  food  and  joy  to  your  heart's  con- 
tent. Even  by  words  like  these  they  could  scarcely  keep 
The       the  crowds  from  sacrificing  to  them. 

stonine       But  Jews  from  Antioch  and  Iconium  arrived,  who  won 
<£.p2o)     over  the  crowds  and  stoned  Paul  and  dragged  him  out  of 

84 


THE  STONING  OF  PAUL 

the  city,  thinking  he  was  dead.    But,  as  the  disciples  gath- 
ered round  him,  he  arose  and  went  into  the  city. 

Next  day  he  went  off  with  Barnabas  to  Derbe;  and  after  Revis- 
preaching  the  gospel  to  that  city  and  making  a  number  of  j£?Ga- 
disciples,  they  turned  back  to  Lystra,  Iconium  and  Antioch,  ^Sanh 
strengthening  the  disciples,  encouraging  them  to  hold  by  es 
the  faith,  and  telling  them,  We  must  enter  the  Kingdom  (nj6) 
of  God  through  many  afflictions.    They  ordained  elders 
for  them  in  every  church,  and  with  prayer  and  fasting 
commended  them  to  the  Lord  in  whom  they  had  believed. 
Then,  passing  through  Pisidia  they  came  to  Pamphylia; 
and  after  speaking  the  word  of  the  Lord  in  Perga  they 
went  down  to  Attalia.    Thence  they  sailed  for  Antioch, 
where  they  had  been  commended  to  the  grace  of  God  for 
the  work  they  had  now  completed. 

On  their  arrival  they  gathered  the  church  together  and  The 
proceeded  to  report  how  God  had  worked  with  them,  and  £*t£e 
how  he  had  opened  a  door  of  faith  for  the  Gentiles.    They  ch^h 
spent  a  considerable  time  there  with  the  disciples.  tioch " 

(26-26) 

I.  Paul's  Work  at  Antioch.  Antioch,  the  old  Syrian  capital, 
was  not  only  the  city  where  the  term  "Christians"  was  coined,  but 
also  the  point  from  which  Christianity  set  out  on  its  deliberate  con- 
quest of  the  Roman  world.  Here  it  was  that  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  had 
first  been  proclaimed  to  the  Gentiles.  As  a  result,  many  Greeks 
were  already  found  in  the  membership  of  the  Antioch  church.  An- 
tioch was  also  the  Syrian  gateway  through  which  ran  the  main  high- 
way that  led  across  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia  to  Rome.  Its  natural 
position,  as  well  as  its  history,  fitted  it  for  its  lofty  role.  The  wisdom 
and  foresight  of  the  Antioch  Christians  and  especially  of  Barnabas, 
their  leader,  were  revealed  by  taking  Paul  into  their  ranks.  It  was 
a  most  significant  recognition  of  the  man  and  his  work  in  Tarsus  and 
Cilicia.  Barnabas  even  went  in  person  to  bring  Paul  to  Antioch, 
thus  giving  to  the  act  an  official  authority.  For  Paul  the  year  spent 
in  teaching  at  Antioch  must  also  have  been  of  great  value.  Here 
amidst  most  favorable  conditions  he  faced  many  of  the  problems  that 
he  later  met  single-handed  in  the  other  great  cities  of  the  empire. 
Here  he  worked  side  by  side  with  Barnabas,  whose  earlier  years  as 
a  follower  of  Jesus  had  been  spent  at  Jerusalem  in  closest  contact 
with  the  Twelve.    Here  Paul  must  have  absorbed  many  of  the  beliefs 

85 


PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

and  hopes  of  the  primitive  Jerusalem  church,  although,  as  he  repeatedly 
asserts,  his  own  faith  rested  on  more  personal  grounds — his  experience 
of  the  risen  Christ  and  of  the  divine  Spirit  working  in  his  life  and 
in  that  of  the  converts  who  responded  to  his  preaching. 

The  date  of  Paul's  work  at  Antioch  is  indicated  by  Luke,  for  he 
connects  it  with  the  terrible  drought  and  famine  that  came  according 
to  Josephus  during  the  procuratorship  of  Tiberius  Alexander,  46-48 
a.d.  Jerusalem  suffered  especially.  The  needs  of  its  inhabitants 
were  in  part  relieved  through  the  generous  gifts  of  a  Jewish  proselyte, 
Queen  Helena,  of  Adiabene.  Her  example  was  followed  by  the  Chris- 
tians of  Antioch.  Barnabas  and  Paul,  the  leaders  in  the  mission  to 
the  Gentiles,  were  chosen  to  bear  these  evidences  of  the  good-will  and 
devotion  of  the  Gentile  Christians  to  the  members  of  the  Judean 
churches.  This  Christian  act  undoubtedly  did  much  to  heal  the 
threatening  breach  between  these  two  branches  of  the  church.  It 
also  opened  the  way  for  the  memorable  interview  between  Paul  and 
the  authorities  at  Jerusalem,  recorded  in  Galatians  2  (cf.  §  CLII), 
which  established  the  freedom  of  the  Gentile  Christians.  It  is  also  sig- 
nificant that  the  one  condition  then  insisted  upon  by  the  Jerusalem 
authorities  was  that  the  benefactions  of  the  Gentile  Christians  be  con- 
tinued. Another  important  result  of  the  mission  to  Jerusalem  was 
that  Paul  and  Barnabas  brought  back  with  them  to  Antioch  Barnabas's 
nephew,  John  Mark,  who,  according  to  early  Christian  tradition,  had 
been  closely  associated  with  Peter  and  who  later  wrote  the  earliest 
surviving  life  of  Jesus.  Thus  the  two  very  different  types  of  churches, 
that  at  Jerusalem  and  that  at  Antioch,  were  closely  bound  together 
by  the  bond  of  mutual  service  and  the  way  prepared  for  the  great  for- 
ward step  that  came  on  the  return  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch. 

II.  The  Sending  Forth  of  Barnabas  and  Paul.  The  narrative 
in  Acts  implies  that  the  impulse  to  enter  upon  the  first  foreign  mis- 
sionary campaign  came  not  from  one  man  but  from  the  collective 
body  of  Antioch  Christians.  Paul  by  his  teachings  and  example  had 
undoubtedly  sown  the  seed.  It  requires  little  imagination  to  detect 
his  personal  influence  in  the  memorable  meeting  when  the  great  de- 
cision was  made.  Those  who  suggest  are  usually  chosen  to  execute, 
and  Barnabas  and  Paul  were  the  two  appointed  to  initiate  the  work. 
The  success  of  the  Jerusalem  mission  may  also  have  led  the  Antioch 
Christians  to  seek  a  larger  field.  They  probably  had  large  resources 
at  their  command.  Barnabas  formerly  held  land  in  Jerusalem; 
Manaen,  one  of  their  number,  had  been  a  playmate  of  Herod,  the 

86 


SENDING  FORTH  BARNABAS  AND  PAUL 

tetrarch.  Antioch  was  an  opulent  city  and  the  Jews  were  among  its 
most  prosperous  citizens.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  Barnabas 
and  Paul  went  forth  on  their  foreign  mission  supported  not  only  by 
the  prayers  and  benedictions  but  also  by  the  gifts  of  the  Antioch 
Christians,  for  "freely  you  have  received,  freely  give"  was  a  funda- 
mental tenet  of  their  faith.  The  missionary  spirit  was  not  a  later 
growth  but  a  fundamental  principle  of  primitive  Christianity. 

III.  The  Work  of  Barnabas  and  Paul  in  Cyprus.  It  is  sig- 
nificant that  when  they  went  forth  Barnabas  was  the  leader;  when 
they  returned  Paul,  the  younger,  was  the  commanding  spirit.  Bar- 
nabas first  led  Paul  and  Mark  to  his  native  island  of  Cyprus,  but 
before  the  two  leading  apostles  returned  they  had  carried  the  Gospel 
of  Jesus  many  miles  beyond  Paul's  native  city,  Tarsus.  The  author 
of  this  section  of  Acts  deliberately  condenses  his  account  of  the  mis- 
sionary campaign  in  Cyprus.  His  reason  is  in  keeping  with  his  pur- 
pose, which  was  to  describe  the  victorious  advance  of  Christianity  from 
Jerusalem  to  Rome  and  to  show  that  it  was  protected  rather  than  op- 
posed by  the  Roman  authorities.  Cyprus,  as  well  as  Egypt,  was 
aside  from  the  main  line  of  that  advance.  At  Salamis,  the  chief 
eastern  port  of  Cyprus,  the  Christian  missionaries  found  a  large  Jew- 
ish colony  and  were  doubtless  freely  admitted  to  the  synagogues,  for 
it  is  probable  that  in  this  distant  outpost  little  opposition  between 
Judaism  and  Christianity  had  as  yet  developed.  Luke's  narrative 
does  not  expand  until  Barnabas  and  Paul  come  into  contact  with  the 
Roman  proconsul  who  ruled  the  island  from  its  capital,  Paphos.  This 
was  the  new  Paphos  on  the  coast  ten  miles  northeast  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Paphos  which  had  long  been  famous  for  worship  of  the  Paphian 
goddess,  whose  shrine  was  there.  The  Roman  proconsul,  Paulus, 
was  evidently  a  man  of  culture,  interested  in  the  various  current 
philosophies.  Pliny  mentions  him  among  the  Roman  writers  of  the 
day.  In  his  train  was  a  Jew  who  had  grafted  on  to  his  inherited  faith 
many  of  the  heathen  ideas  and  practices  that  had  come  from  the  East, 
especially  from  Persia.  This  half  philosopher  and  half  fakir  had  also 
won  a  reputation  as  a  prophet  or  public  preacher.  He  was  one  of  the 
many  missionaries  in  that  strongly  missionary  age.  The  mother 
goddess  of  Phrygia,  the  Egyptian  goddess  Isis,  as  well  as  the  Cynic 
and  Stoic  philosophies,  all  had  their  emissaries,  like  the  Pharisees 
"encompassing  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes."  In  Asia  Minor, 
Macedonia,  and  Rome  Paul  met  and  contested  with  them  for  the 
faith  of  men.     In  the  presence  of  the  cultured  Roman  proconsul  it  is 

87 


PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

not  Barnabas  nor  Saul  the  Jew,  but  Paulus  the  Roman  citizen  who 
suddenly  stands  forth  and  from  this  time  on  holds  the  central  place 
not  only  in  the  book  of  Acts  but  in  the  missionary  work  of  the  Chris- 
tian church.  The  scene  in  Acts  is  symbolic  of  the  victorious  contest 
that  Christianity  was  destined  to  wage  with  the  heathen  cults  and 
philosophies  of  the  ancient  world. 

IV.  The  Mission  Field  in  Southern  Asia  Minor.  The  activity 
of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  Cyprus  does  not  appear  to  have  been  very 
fruitful.  The  narrative  in  Acts  implies  that  they  confined  their  work 
chiefly  to  the  Jews.  It  is  not  even  claimed  that  the  Roman  procon- 
sul definitely  aligned  himself  with  the  Christian  beliefs.  No  discour- 
agements or  obstacles,  however,  could  daunt  Paul  or  deter  him  from 
the  realization  of  the  aim  which  he  henceforth  set  before  him.  This 
aim  alone  explains  why  he  left  Cyprus  and  struck  northward  into 
Asia  Minor.  It  was  because  he  was  eager  to  carry  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  the  next  stage  westward  of  Cilicia  toward  the  heart  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  Perga,  near  the  southern  coast,  was  left  behind,  for  it  was 
strongly  pagan  and  aside  from  the  great  world  currents.  There  also, 
John  Mark  turned  back,  while  Paul,  sick  in  body  but  fearless  and  de- 
termined, dragged  Barnabas  with  him  up  over  the  almost  impassable 
southern  headlands  of  Asia  Minor,  facing  untold  hardships,  "perils 
of  rivers  and  perils  of  robbers,"  to  the  commercial  cities  that  lay  on 
the  great  highway  which  led  from  the  East  to  Rome.  Here  Paul  the 
cosmopolitan  again  found  himself  at  home.  Here,  as  at  Tarsus, 
Roman  organization,  Greek  culture,  and  Jewish  religious  zeal  were 
found  side  by  side,  even  though  they  did  not  blend.  Here  was  a  field 
that  appealed  to  the  great  missionary  statesman  of  early  Christianity. 

V.  At  Galatian  Antioch.  Antioch,  one  of  the  two  chief  cities 
of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  was  an  important  eastern  outpost 
of  the  imperial  city.  It  lay  on  an  isolated  plateau  over  thirty-six 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level  and  two  hundred  feet  above  the 
western  plain.  It  was  guarded  on  the  eastern  side  by  the  swift,  deep- 
flowing  River  Anthios.  Augustus,  recognizing  its  strategic  impor- 
tance, had  made  it  a  Roman  colony  about  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  dominated  the  surrounding  region  to  which  the  narrative 
of  Acts  refers  and  was  a  most  favorable  centre  in  which  to  plant  the 
Gospel  seed.  Here  was  evidently  a  large  Jewish  colony  which  had 
attracted  to  its  ranks  many  thoughtful  Greeks  as  well  as  Jews.  The 
official  abolition  of  the  local  religion  increased  the  possibilities  of  this 
new  mission  field.     Through  the  medium  of  the  local  synagogue  Paul 

88 


PAUL  AT  GALATIAN  ANTIOCH 

and  Barnabas  easily  gained  a  hearing  from  the  more  religiously  minded 
citizens  of  this  important  metropolis.  The  sermon  which  the  author 
attributes  to  Paul  contains  many  echoes  of  Stephen's  earlier  address. 
In  its  use  of  the  Old  Testament  it  reflects  the  current  rabbinical  meth- 
ods. While  its  form  may  be  due  in  part  or  largely  to  the  author  of 
this  section  of  Acts,  it  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  sermons  which 
carried  conviction  to  the  minds  of  earnest  Jews  and  Gentiles  seeking 
the  way  of  salvation.  The  success  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  Galatia 
and  Antioch  was  most  marked.  The  Jews  and  devout  Greeks  gathered 
about  them  with  eager  questions.  Not  only  the  city  itself  but  the 
surrounding  region  which  it  commanded  was  stirred  by  the  message  of 
the  apostles  until  the  opposition  of  the  more  conservative  Jews  was 
aroused.  The  author  here  as  elsewhere  represents  the  apostles  as 
speaking  first  to  the  Jews  and  then  to  the  Gentiles,  but  the  account 
itself  indicates  that  from  the  first  the  appeal  was  to  both  classes. 
Recognizing  the  universality  of  Jesus'  work,  Paul  in  his  own  teaching 
and  activity  had  long  since  broken  the  bond  which  still  fettered  the 
Palestinian  Christians. 

VI.  The  Apostles'  Work  at  Iconium  and  Lystra.  A  positive 
character  and  message  such  as  Paul's  inevitably  aroused  opposition 
and  he  was  soon  driven  with  Barnabas  to  find  refuge  elsewhere  and 
a  new  field  of  work.  They  left  behind,  however,  a  devoted  group  of 
disciples  whose  joy  and  spiritual  exaltation  testified  to  the  divine 
transformation  which  had  been  worked  in  their  lives.  Eighty  miles 
east  of  Antioch  lay  another  important  Galatian  city.  Iconium,  un- 
like Antioch,  was  on  a  fertile,  level  plain  on  the  western  side  of  a  lofty 
mountain  range  from  whose  sides  rushed  the  stream  which  irrigated 
the  great  plain  about  the  city.  The  almost  constant  danger  of  floods 
and  foreign  invasion  had  developed  in  highest  measure  the  energy  and 
resourcefulness  of  its  inhabitants.  Here  the  apostles  found  a  flourish- 
ing colony  and  Jewish  synagogue.  Jews  and  Greeks  alike  responded 
to  their  teaching,  although  certain  of  the  Jews  bitterly  opposed  them. 
Here  for  weeks  and  probably  months  they  conducted  a  successful 
mission,  but  its  very  success  in  time  aroused  the  rulers,  so  that  at  last 
the  apostles  departed  amidst  taunts  and  pelting  stones. 

Wearied  by  constant  opposition  and  in  quest  of  a  quiet  place  of 
refuge,  Paul  and  Barnabas  turned  westward  to  the  native  town  of 
Lystra,  twenty  miles  from  Iconium.  It  was  situated  in  a  peaceful 
valley,  watered  by  two  streams  from  the  western  hills.  In  the  midst 
of  the  valley  rose  the  acropolis,  a  steep  hill,  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 

89 


PAUL'S  FIRST  MISSIONARY  CAMPAIGN 

height.  Here  the  apostles  were  among  a  simple  peasant  people  of  the 
old  Lycaonian  stock.  A  kindly  work  of  healing,  wrought  upon  a  lame 
man  whose  faith  was  equal  to  the  task,  almost  instantly  won  the 
adoration  of  the  populace.  The  narrative  well  illustrates  the  com- 
mon popular  belief  of  the  day  that  the  gods  in  human  form  frequently 
came  down  and  walked  among  men.  Barnabas,  the  taller  and  more 
commanding  figure,  was  identified  as  Zeus;  Paul,  the  smaller  and  alert 
and  more  gifted  speaker,  with  Hermes,  the  spokesman  and  messenger 
of  the  gods.  Not  understanding  the  native  language,  the  apostles  ap- 
parently did  not  at  first  understand  that  the  people  were  about  to 
worship  and  offer  sacrifices  to  them;  but  as  soon  as  they  appreciated 
the  situation  they  loudly  protested  and  improved  the  opportunity  to 
tell  them  of  the  one  living  God,  whence  came  all  their  blessings. 
Lystra,  however,  was  under  the  control  of  the  Galatian  Antioch  and 
so  near  Iconium  that  the  Jewish  persecutors  of  the  apostles  soon  over- 
took them  and  turned  the  zeal  of  the  populace  into  mad  rage,  so  that 
Paul  barely  escaped  death  at  their  hands.  Derbe,  the  next  place  to 
which  the  apostles  turned  for  refuge,  was  on  a  great  plain  about  forty- 
five  miles  south  of  Iconium.  Here  amidst  the  native  population  they 
met  with  little  opposition.  This  point,  however,  marked  the  eastern 
limit  of  their  campaign,  for  it  was  near  the  eastern  bounds  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Galatia.  Paul,  instead  of  going  eastward  along  the  direct 
road  to  his  boyhood  home  at  Tarsus  and  to  the  field  of  his  earlier 
activity  in  Cilicia,  was  evidently  eager  to  return  and  perfect  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Christian  communities  which  they  had  established 
in  the  important  cities  of  Galatia.  The  lapse  of  time  and  in  many 
cases  the  change  of  rulers  and  the  abatement  of  opposition  made  this 
possible.  Hence  they  retraced  their  steps,  in  each  place  strengthening 
the  disciples.  Out  of  the  ranks  of  each  Christian  community  they 
selected  certain  presbyters  or  elders  to  direct  and  instruct  the  indi- 
vidual members.  Evidently  Paul  was  seeking  not  to  build  up  a 
hierarchy  but  a  democratic  brotherhood  akin  to  that  which  Jesus  him- 
self had  established  during  his  ministry  in  Galilee.  Thence  they  re- 
turned through  Pamphylia  to  the  sea  at  Attalia  and  from  there  by  ship 
to  Antioch,  where  they  reported  the  results  of  their  work  to  the  church 
which  had  sent  them  forth  and  the  great  fact  that  the  Gentile  world 
was  waiting  eagerly  to  receive  the  message  of  their  risen  Lord.  Within 
less  than  two  decades  after  the  death  of  Jesus  Christianity  had  entered 
upon  its  world  conquest,  so  great  was  the  potency  of  the  personality 
and  teachings  of  him  who  taught  as  never  man  taught  before. 

90 


PAUL'S  INTERVIEW  WITH  THE  APOSTLES 


§  CLH.     THE  BREAKING  OF  JEWISH  BONDS 

[Paul  himself  states  that]  Fourteen  years  after  my  first  Paul's 
visit  with  Peter  I  went  up  again  to  Jerusalem  accompanied  ™w~ 
by  Barnabas.    I  also  took  Titus  with  me.    I  went  up  in  %£* 
obedience  to  a  revelation.    And  I  laid  before  them  the  ment 
gospel  which  I  preach  to  the  Gentiles;  I  did  this  in  private  Seh 
before  the  authorities  lest  by  any  means  I  should  be  running,  **>£*• 
or   should  already  have  run  in  vain.    But  even  though  (Qai. 
Titus,  who  was  with  me,  was  a  Greek,  he  was  not  obliged  2118) 
to  be  circumcised.    The  opposition  came  through  certain 
traitorous  false  brothers  who  had  crept  in  to  spy  out  the 
freedom  we  enjoy  in  Christ  Jesus  in  order  that  they  might 
enslave  us  again.    But,  in  order  that  the  truth  of  the  gospel 
might  hold  good  for  you,  we  did  not  consent  for  an  instant 
to  submit  to  them.    Indeed  from  the  authorities — what- 
ever they  are  it  makes  no  difference  to  me ;  God  payeth  no 
respect  to  persons — these  authorities  had  no  additions  to 
make  to  my  gospel.     On  the  contrary,  when  they  saw  that 
I  had  been  intrusted  with  the  gospel  for  the  uncircumcised 
just  as  Peter  had  been  for  the  circumcised  (for  he  who 
equipped  Peter  to  be  an  apostle  to  the  circumcised  equipped 
me  as  well  for  the  Gentiles),  and  when  they  recognized  the 
grace  that  had  been  given  me,  James  and  Cephas  and  John, 
who  were  considered  the  pillars  of  the  church,  gave  to  me 
and  Barnabas  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  that  we  should 
go  to  the  Gentiles,  they  to  the  circumcised.     One  thing  they 
urged,  that  we  should  remember  the  poor,  which  I  myself 
was  exceedingly  eager  to  do. 

When  Cephas  came  to  Antioch,  I  opposed  him  to  his  face,  Pauls 
because  he  stood  condemned.    For  before  certain  persons  rebuke 
came  from  James,  he  ate  with  the  Gentile  Christians;  but  pfeter 
when  they  came,  he  withdrew  and  held  aloof  for  fear  of  the  for  in- 
circumcision  party.    The  rest  of  the  Jewish  Christians  also  S^~ 
played  false  along  with  him,  so  that  even  Barnabas  was  <n  16> 
carried  away  by  their  false  play.    But  when  I  saw  that 
they  were  not  acting  uprightly  in  the  true  spirit  of  the 
gospel,  I  said  to  Cephas  in  the  presence  of  them  all:  If 
you  who  are  a  Jew  live  like  the  Gentiles  and  not  like  the 

91 


THE  BREAKING  OF  JEWISH  BONDS 

Jews,  why  do  you  oblige  the  Gentiles  to  become  Jews? 
We  may  be  Jews  by  birth  and  not  *  Gentile  sinners/  but, 
knowing  that  a  man  is  justified  by  faith  in  Christ  Jesus 
and  not  by  doing  the  things  which  the  law  commands,  we 
ourselves  have  believed  in  Christ  Jesus  so  as  to  be  jus- 
tified by  faith  in  Christ  and  not  by  doing  the  things  that 
the  law  commands,  for  by  doing  those  things  which  the 
law  commands  no  human  being  shall  be  justified. 

Now  certain  individuals  came  down  from  Jerusalem  and 
taught  the  brothers:  Unless  you  are  circumcised  after  the 
custom  of  Moses  you  cannot  be  saved.  Inasmuch  as  there 
was  a  sharp  dispute  and  controversy  between  them  and 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  it  was  arranged  that  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas, along  with  some  others  of  their  number,  should  go 
up  to  Jerusalem  to  consult  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jeru- 
salem about  this  question. 

So  they  set  out,  being  accompanied  for  a  distance  by 
members  of  the  church.  And  they  passed  through  Phoe- 
nicia and  Samaria,  telling  about  the  conversion  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. And  they  inspired  all  the  brothers  with  great  joy. 
(8»4)  When  they  arrived  at  Jerusalem,  they  were  received  by 
the  church  and  the  apostles  and  elders.  And  they  reported 
all  that  God  had  done  through  them. 
peters  But  some  of  the  believers  who  belonged  to  the  Pharisaic 
W^he  party  got  up  and  said,  Gentiles  must  be  circumcised  and 
council  enjoined  to  observe  the  law  of  Moses.  Then  the  apostles 
and  the  presbyters  met  to  investigate  this  question,  and  a 
keen  controversy  sprang  up;  but  Peter  rose  and  said  to 
them,  Brothers,  you  know  well  that  from  the  earliest  days 
God  chose  among  you  that  by  my  mouth  the  Gentiles  were 
to  hear  the  word  of  the  gospel  and  believe.  The  God  who 
knows  all  hearts  attested  this  by  giving  them  the  Holy 
Spirit  just  as  he  gave  it  to  us;  in  cleansing  their  hearts  by 
faith  he  made  no  distinction  at  all  between  us  and  them. 
Well  now,  why  are  you  trying  an  experiment  upon  God  by 
imposing  a  yoke  on  the  neck  of  the  disciples  which  neither 
our  fathers  nor  we  ourselves  could  bear?  No,  it  is  by  the 
grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  that  we  believe  and  are  saved,  in 
the  same  way  as  they. 

92 


(5-11) 


STATEMENT  OF  PAUL  AND  BARNABAS 

Then  the  whole  assembly  was  silent  and  listened  to  state- 
Barnabas  and  Paul  recounting  the  signs  and  wonders  God  JJfpLi 
had  performed  by  them  among  the  Gentiles.  and^ 

When  they  had  finished  speaking,  James  replied,  Brothers,  bas™? 
listen  to  me.     Simeon  has  told  how  God  originally  sought  The 
to  secure  a  people  from  among  the  Gentiles  to  bear  his  counsel 
name.    This  agrees  with  the  words  of  the  prophets;  as  it  James 
is  written,  l    ; 

After  this  I  will  return  and  rebuild  David's  fallen  tent,  ] 

Its  ruins  I  will  rebuild  and  set  it  up  again, 

That  the  rest  of  men  may  seek  for  the  Lord,  that  they 

may  possess  the  remnant  of  Edom 
Even  all  the  Gentiles  who  are  called  by  my  name, 
Saith  the  Lord,  who  maketh  this  known  from  of  old. 

My  judgment  therefore  is  that  we  ought  not  to  put  fresh 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  those  who  are  turning  to  God  from 
among  the  Gentiles,  but  enjoin  them  to  abstain  from  what- 
ever is  polluted  by  idols,  from  sexual  vice,  from  the  flesh 
of  animals  that  have  been  strangled,  and  from  blood;  for 
Moses  has  had  his  preachers  from  earliest  ages  in  every 
city,  where  he  is  read  aloud  in  the  synagogues  every  sab- 
bath. 

Then  the  apostles  and  the   elders,  together  with  the  The 
whole  church,  decided  to   select  some  of  their  number  tSic" 
and  send  them  to  Antioch  with  Paul  and  Barnabas.    The  JJ** 
men  selected  were  Judas   (called  Barsabbas)   and  Silas,  Gentae 
leading  members  of  the  brotherhood.    They  bore  the  fol-  tSST 
lowing  letter:  The  apostles  and  the  elder  brothers  send  <22"29> 
greeting  to  the  brothers  who  belong  to  the  Gentiles  through- 
out Antioch  and  Syria  and  Cilicia.     Since  we  have  learned 
that  some  of  our  number,  without  being  authorized  by  us, 
have  disturbed  you  with  their  teaching  and  upset  your 
souls,  we  have  decided  unanimously  to  select  some  of  our 
number  and  send  them  to  you  along  with  our  beloved 
Barnabas  and  Paul  who  have  risked  their  lives  for  the  sake 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.    We  therefore  send  Judas  and 
Silas,  who  will  also  tell  you  these  things  by  word  of  mouth. 
The  Holy  Spirit  and  we  have  decided  not  to  impose  any 

93 


THE  BREAKING  OF  JEWISH  BONDS 

extra  burden  on  you,  except  these  essential  requirements: 
abstain  from  food  that  has  been  offered  to  idols,  from  tast- 
ing blood,  from  the  flesh  of  animals  that  have  been  stran- 
gled, and  from  sexual  vice.  Keep  clear  of  all  this  and  it 
will  be  well  with  you.    Farewell. 

When  the  messengers  were  despatched,  they  went  down 
to  Antioch  and,  after  gathering  the  whole  assembly,  they 
delivered  the  letter.  On  reading  it  the  people  rejoiced  at 
the  encouragement  it  brought.  And  as  Judas  and  Silas 
were  themselves  prophets,  they  encouraged  and  strength- 
ened the  brothers  with  many  a  discourse.  Then  after 
they  had  spent  some  time  there  they  were  dismissed  with  a 
greeting  of  peace  from  the  brothers  to  those  who  had  sent 
them.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  however,  stayed  on  in  Antioch, 
teaching  and  preaching  the  word  of  the  Lord  along  with  a 
number  of  others. 

I.  The   Burning   Problem    in    the    Christian    Church.    The 

extension  of  Christianity  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Palestine,  and 
especially  the  work  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  among  the  Gentiles,  pre- 
sented to  the  Christian  church  its  first  great  and  insistent  problem.  For- 
tunately, it  did  not  become  a  pressing  issue  until  the  work  of  the 
Hellenistic  Christians  had  furnished  a  large  body  of  facts  born  of 
experience.  The  problem  involved  three  distinct  issues  and  it  is  im- 
portant not  to  confuse  them.  The  first  and  most  insistent  was,  Were 
the  Gentile  Christians  to  be  compelled  to  follow  the  demands  of  the 
Jewish  law  ?  Second,  What  were  the  obligations  of  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians to  their  inherited  law?  The  third  question,  fortunately,  came 
to  the  forefront  a  little  later,  What  were  to  be  the  mutual  obligations 
of  each  when  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  ate  and  associated  to- 
gether? According  to  the  testimony  of  Paul  (Gal.  24),  the  problem 
was  precipitated  by  certain  Jewish  Christians  "who  had  crept  in  to 
spy  out  the  freedom"  that  the  Antioch  Christians  were  enjoying  in 
Christ  Jesus  and  who  aimed  to  enslave  again  the  Gentile  members  of 
that  great  and  growing  church  by  compelling  them  to  satisfy  all  the 
detailed  demands  of  the  Jewish  law. 

II.  The  Accounts  of  the  Way  in  Which  the  Problem  Was 
Solved.  Fortunately,  in  the  second  chapter  of  Paul's  letter  to  the 
Galatians  he  has  given  a  brief  but  straightforward  and  clear  statement 
of  the  issue  and  its  outcome.     It  reveals  not  merely  Paul's  position 

94 


THE  ACCOUNTS  OF  THE  SOLVING  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

but  that  of  the  "pillars"  at  Jerusalem  and  unquestionably  must  be 
regarded  as  the  primary  historical  source.  Acts  1428-1535  contains  what 
is  generally  regarded  as  a  parallel  record  of  the  same  vital  controversy. 
In  the  outstanding  facts  the  two  accounts  are  in  substantial  agreement. 
That  in  Acts,  however,  makes  it  a  public  rather  than  the  distinctively 
private  conference  described  in  the  second  chapter  of  Paul's  letter  to 
the  Galatians.  The  influence  of  the  author's  harmonizing  purpose  is  also 
apparent  in  the  absence  from  his  account  of  any  reference  to  the  radical 
issue  between  Peter  and  Paul  regarding  the  obligations  of  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christians  where  the  two  were  associated  together  in  the  same 
church.  To  the  formal  decision  of  James  and  the  Jewish  Christians 
at  Jerusalem  Paul  makes  no  reference  in  Galatians  2.  The  only 
satisfactory  explanation  is  that  Paul's  private  interview  with  the 
"pillars"  at  Jerusalem  took  place  when  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  with 
Barnabas  to  present  the  gift  of  the  Antioch  Christians.  This  date  is 
supported  by  Paul's  clear  implication  that  he  had  made  no  other  visit 
to  Jerusalem  since  his  first  meeting  with  Peter,  fourteen  years  before 
his  memorable  interview.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  therefore,  set  out  on 
their  first  missionary  campaign  with  the  assurance  that  the  leaders  at 
Jerusalem  approved  of  their  action.  The  public  council  at  Jerusalem 
apparently  came  after  their  return  two  years  later.  This  chronological 
arrangement  solves  many  difficulties  and  brings  the  testimony  of  Paul 
and  of  Acts  into  substantial  agreement. 

III.  Paul's  Interview  with  the  "  Pillars  "  at  Jerusalem.  The 
date  of  Paul's  memorable  interview  with  the  leaders  of  the  Jerusalem 
church  was  probably  in  47  a.d.,  and  therefore  antedated  by  two  years 
the  conference  reported  in  Acts.  Paul  tells  us  that,  as  frequently  in  the 
great  decisive  moments  in  his  life,  he  was  led  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  as 
the  result  of  a  special  revelation,  although  in  the  same  connection  he 
speaks  of  the  subversive  influence  of  certain  traitorous  false  brothers 
in  the  Antioch  church  who  had  precipitated  the  issue.  He  plainly 
felt  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  decisive  action.  To  make  the  ques- 
tion absolutely  clear  and  concrete,  he  took  with  him  Titus,  a  Greek 
Christian  who  had  not  submitted  to  the  Jewish  rite  of  circumcision 
and  who,  presumably  because  of  his  Gentile  origin,  observed  none  of 
the  detailed  Jewish  laws.  Frankly  and  fully  Paul  described  to  the 
authorities  at  Jerusalem  the  Gospel  which  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
preaching  to  the  Gentiles  and  asserted  its  universality  and  applicabil- 
ity freed  from  all  Jewish  limitations.  In  the  light  of  the  facts,  the 
"pillars"  of  the  Jerusalem  church,  including  the  disciples  Peter  and 

95 


THE  BREAKING  OF  JEWISH  BONDS 

John  and  James  the  brother  of  Jesus  (who  had  probably  been  chosen 
to  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  ranks  of  the  Twelve  due  to  the  martyrdom  of 
James  the  son  of  Zebedee),  fully  accepted  Paul's  position  and  gave 
him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  It  was  decided  that  Paul  should 
be  allowed  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  without  any  limita- 
tions. The  account  also  implies  that  the  Twelve  were  to  continue  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews  and  to  require  that  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tian converts  should  continue  to  observe  the  demands  of  their  law. 
The  only  obligation  laid  upon  Paul  was  the  request  that  he  remember 
the  needs  of  the  poor  Christians  at  Jerusalem — a  request  that  he  de- 
clares himself  eager  to  grant.  This  request  was  probably  prompted 
by  the  actual  needs  of  the  Jerusalem  Christian  community,  many  of 
whom  had  no  direct  means  of  support,  and  who  after  the  period  of 
famine  that  had  just  preceded  were  in  great  want.  It  also  aimed  to 
bind  together  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  sections  of  the  Christian  church 
by  practical  acts  of  service.  Furthermore,  it  implied  a  certain  obliga- 
tion, if  not  subjection,  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  Jews.  This  obligation 
is  frankly  admitted  by  Paul  himself  at  the  close  of  his  letter  to  the 
Romans:  "Macedonia  and  Achaia  have  decided  to  make  a  contribution 
for  the  poor  among  the  saints  at  Jerusalem.  Such  is  their  decision, 
and  it  is  a  debt  they  owe  them,  for  if  the  Gentiles  have  shared  their 
spiritual  blessings  they  owe  them  a  debt  of  aid  in  material  things'' 

(1526,  27). 

Paul  says  nothing  about  the  public  announcement  of  the  results  of 
this  interview  to  the  Jerusalem  Christians,  but  it  may  be  inferred  that 
it  was  made,  for  the  later  opposition  that  Paul  had  sought  to  allay 
by  his  visit  to  the  historic  home  of  the  church  came  not  from  the  apos- 
tles but  from  certain  ardent  Pharisaic  Christians.  Paul  states  in 
Galatians  26-9  that  Peter  and  James  defended  the  Tightness  of  his 
claims.  He  in  turn  confirmed  the  wisdom  of  this  decision  by  telling 
of  the  significant  work  that  he  had  already  accomplished  (in  Syria  and 
Cilicia)  among  the  Gentiles.  Paul's  vivid  record  of  his  interview  with 
the  Twelve  does  not  suggest  that  the  slightest  limitation  was  placed 
by  them  upon  his  mission  to  the  Greek  world.  They  simply  agreed  to 
divide  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  fields  and  not  to  intrench  on. the  work 
of  the  other.  Throughout  the  interview  the  spirit  of  their  common 
Master  guided  them  in  dealing  with  this  most  delicate  and  important 
question,  so  that  without  a  rupture  in  the  church  the  ancient  Jewish 
bonds  were  thrown  aside  and  Christianity  went  forth  unfettered  to 
its  world  conquest. 

96 


PROBLEMS  IN  THE  GENTILE  CHURCHES 

IV.  Problems  Arising  from  the  Association  of  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christians.  One  vexed  question  remained  unsolved,  and 
before  long  demanded  an  answer.  In  the  early  church  it  assumed 
portentous  proportions;  but  in  the  perspective  of  history  it  appears 
relatively  unimportant.  It  became  insistent  in  the  mixed  Jewish 
and  Gentile  churches,  where  the  division  between  the  mission  to  the 
Gentiles  and  that  to  the  Jews  could  not  be  rigidly  observed.  Paul, 
on  the  basis  of  his  earlier  experience,  fully  recognized  this  fact.  At 
the  beginning  he  asserted  his  conviction  as  to  what  was  the  only  satis- 
factory solution  by  taking  the  uncircumcised  Greek  Titus  with  him  to 
Jerusalem  and  by  freely  associating  with  him.  In  the  private  inter- 
view the  apostles  tacitly  accepted  Paul's  position  and  made  no  ad- 
ditions to  it,  although  certain  Jewish  Christians  opposed  it  from  the 
first  (Gal.  24"6).  When  Peter  later  came  to  Antioch,  he  also  at  first 
accepted  it  in  practice  as  well  as  theory.  This  attitude  was  perfectly 
natural  in  a  disciple  of  a  Master  who  had  freely  eaten  with  sinners 
and  tax-collectors  and  who  had  shown  in  all  his  career  a  calm  uncon- 
cern for  all  ceremonialism.  Peter  needed  no  special  vision  to  convince 
him  on  this  point.  The  fraternal  spirit  manifest  among  the  Antioch 
Christians  was  also  indubitable  evidence  that  their  faith  was  rooted 
in  something  far  deeper  than  mere  ceremonial  forms.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  during  his  absence  on  his  first  missionary  campaign  the 
narrow  Judaizers  in  the  Jerusalem  church  had  been  active.  They 
were  doubtless  the  same  men  who  had  protested  against  associating 
with  the  Greek  Christian  Titus.  Reports  of  what  Peter  had  been 
doing  at  Antioch  had  probably  reached  them.  Their  protests  even 
influenced  James  to  send  messengers  to  Peter  with  the  result  that  he 
withdrew  from  associating  closely  with  the  Gentile  Christians.  Even 
Barnabas  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  the  Judaizers.  Luke  in  Acts 
1523"29  has  probably  embodied  the  essence  of  their  demands.  In  any 
case,  Paul's  explicit  testimony  in  Galatians  2  indicates  that  these 
specific  regulations  were  issued  not  only  after  his  interview  with  the 
" pillars"  at  Jerusalem  but  also  after  Peter's  visit  to  Antioch.  They 
stipulate  that  all  Gentile  Christians  should  abstain  from  things  con- 
taminated by  contact  with  idols,  from  sexual  vice,  from  the  flesh  of 
animals  that  had  been  strangled,  and  from  tasting  blood.  According 
to  the  Jewish  law  found  in  Leviticus,  chapters  17  and  18,  these  were  the 
exact  limitations  placed  upon  foreigners  resident  in  Palestine.  While 
there  is  no  evidence  that  Peter  publicly  insisted  that  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians of  Antioch  should  observe  these  injunctions,  his  ceasing  to  eat 

97 


THE  BREAKING  OF  JEWISH  BONDS 

with  the  Gentile  Christians  implied  a  tacit  acceptance  of  the  principle 
involved.  His  motive  was  doubtless  to  maintain  peace  and  harmony 
in  the  Palestinian  church  and  to  avoid  destroying  his  influence  with 
the  Jews.  Barnabas,  with  his  strong  Jewish  inheritance  and  Jeru- 
salem affiliations,  evidently  regarded  Peter's  position  as  tenable.  It 
is  easy  to  appreciate  the  practical  considerations  which  influenced 
Peter's  action.  He  was  quite  willing  that  Paul  should  preach  the  Gospel 
to  the  Gentiles  without  restriction  but,  recognizing  that  his  own  mis- 
sion was  primarily  to  the  Jews,  he  deemed  it  unwise  to  openly  repudiate 
the  demands  of  the  Jewish  law. 

The  incident  recorded  in  Galatians  2  may  antedate  certain  of  the 
facts  underlying  the  story  of  Peter's  vision  in  Acts  10,  which  aims  to 
show  how  he  was  led  to  see  that  in  the  eyes  of  God  there  was  no  validity 
in  the  legal  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  (109"16),  and  that  he 
was  to  associate  freely  without  restriction  with  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews 
and  to  call  no  man  "common  or  unclean"  (1028).  His  later  mission 
to  the  Gentiles,  to  which  Paul  refers  in  I  Corinthians  95,  implies  that 
in  time  Peter  repented  of  the  backward  step  which  he  had  taken  at 
Antioch  and  joined  with  Paul  in  his  mission  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
world. 

V.  Paul's  Controversy  with  Peter.  The  reason  for  Paul's 
indignation  and  public  arraignment  of  Peter  is  obvious.  He  was  con- 
scious that  the  great  apostle  agreed  with  him  in  principle,  but  that  his 
action  was  a  deadly  blow  at  the  Christian  liberty  which  Paul  so  ar- 
dently championed.  He  argued  also  that  the  work  of  Christ  was 
sufficient  for  the  salvation  of  both  the  Jew  and  the  Gentile  and  that 
insistence  upon  the  observation  of  the  law  was  evidence  of  lack  of 
faith  in  the  Gospel.  At  the  same  time,  Paul  in  his  later  writings  and 
in  his  own  practice  strongly  advocates  consideration  for  the  religious 
scruples  of  his  Jewish  brothers.  "Therefore,  if  food  is  any  hinderance 
to  my  brother's  welfare,  rather  than  injure  him  I  will  never  eat  flesh 
as  long  as  I  live"  (I  Cor.  813).  "To  the  Jews  I  have  become  like  a 
Jew  to  win  over  Jews.  To  those  outside  the  law  I  have  become  like  one 
of  themselves"  (I  Cor.  920a>  21a).  The  fundamental  difference  between 
Paul's  position  and  that  of  Peter  and  the  Jerusalem  apostles  was  that 
they  proposed  to  impose  definite  rules  upon  all  Gentile  Christians, 
thus  breaking  the  agreement  into  which  they  had  entered  at  the 
memorable;  interview  at  Jerusalem,  while  Paul  demanded  for  each  man 
individual  liberty,  although  even  in  his  letter  to  the  Galatians  with 
all  its  protests  against  the  Judaizing  Christians,  he  urges:  "Brothers, 

98 


PAUL'S  CONTROVERSY  WITH  PETER 

you  are  called  to  be  free;  only  do  not  make  your  freedom  an  opening 
for  the  flesh,  but  serve  one  another  in  love"  (Gal.  513).  The  principle 
involved  in  this  great  controversy  was  long  debated  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian church.  Revelations  214>  20  simply  emphasizes  the  importance 
of  having  all  Christians  abstain  from  eating  things  offered  to  idols. 
Not  until  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century,  when  Christianity  broke 
entirely  with  Judaism,  was  the  broad  yet  considerate  position  advo- 
cated by  Paul  universally  adopted  by  the  Christian  church.  Even 
as  late  as  120  a.d.  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  directs:  "But  as  con- 
cerning foods  bear  that  which  thou  art  able;  however,  abstain  by  all 
means  from  meat  sacrificed  to  idols,  for  it  is  the  worship  of  dead  gods." 
VI.  The  Significance  of  the  Breaking  of  Jewish  Bonds.  Viewed 
in  the  broad  perspective  of  history,  the  incidents  recorded  in  Galatians 
2  mark  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  What  had  hitherto 
been  accepted  in  practice  outside  of  Palestine  was  now  formulated  in 
a  definite  principle.  Christianity  stood  before  the  Graeco-Roman 
world  completely  free  from  the  swaddling-clothes  of  Judaism.  Hence- 
forth the  apostles  to  the  Gentiles  entered  upon  their  noble  task  of 
interpreting  the  principles  of  Jesus  into  forms  attractive  and  intelligible 
to  that  world.  Paul,  conscious  of  the  strong  opposition  against  him- 
self and  his  teachings  in  the  Palestinian  church  and  at  variance  even 
with  certain  leaders  like  Barnabas  of  the  Antioch  church,  henceforth 
faced  with  undivided  zeal  the  Gentile  mission  field.  The  conscious- 
ness of  fighting  for  a  great  principle  spurred  him  on  to  still  greater 
endeavors.  It  also  led  him  to  seek  fields  beyond  the  immediate  pale 
of  Jewish  influence  in  which  he  could  demonstrate  in  broader  and 
larger  measure  the  efficacy  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  for  Gentile  as  well 
as  Jew.  The  unfortunate  by-products  of  the  great  controversy  were 
destined  to  pursue  him  and  undermine  to  a  certain  extent  his  work 
not  only  in  Asia  Minor  but  even  in  distant  Corinth.  At  the  same 
time  it  called  forth  some  of  his  greatest  utterances  and  tended  to  con- 
firm him  in  his  broad  position.  It  was  clearly  the  chief  cause  of  the 
breach  between  himself  and  Barnabas;  but  the  fact  that  he  lost  the 
companionship  of  his  earlier  co-laborer  led  him  to  rear  up  a  group  of 
faithful  disciples  who  ultimately  multiplied  manyfold  the  work  of 
the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  Thus  out  of  the  bitterness  of  the 
struggle  came  rich  fruits  and  the  Christian  liberty  which  is  man's  most 
cherished  possession. 


99 


PAUL'S  SECOND   VISIT  TO  GALATIA 


§CLm.    PAUL'S   SECOND  VISIT   AND   LATER   LETTER   TO 
THE  CHURCHES  OF  GALATIA 

After  remaining  certain  days  in  Antioch,  Paul  said  to 
Barnabas,  Let  us  now  go  back  to  visit  the  brothers  in  all 
the  cities  where  we  have  proclaimed  the  word  of  the  Lord 
and  see  how  they  are  doing.  But  while  Barnabas  wanted 
to  take  along  John  (who  was  called  Mark),  Paul  did  not 
deem  it  desirable  to  take  with  them  a  man  who  had  deserted 
them  in  Pamphylia  instead  of  going  on  with  them  to  the 
work.  So  there  was  a  serious  disagreement  with  the  re- 
sult that  they  parted  company.  Barnabas,  taking  Mark 
with  him,  set  sail  for  Cyprus,  while  Paul  selected  Silas  and 
went  off,  commended  by  the  brothers  to  the  grace  of  the 
Lord.  He  passed  through  Syria  and  Cilicia  strengthening 
the  churches. 

He  also  came  to  Derbe  and  Lystra.  At  Lystra  there  was 
a  disciple  called  Timothy,  the  son  of  a  believing  Jewess 
and  of  a  Greek  father.  He  was  well  spoken  of  by  the 
brothers  at  Lystra  and  Iconium.  Paul,  desiring  to  have  him 
accompany  him,  took  and  circumcised  him  on  account  of 
the  Jews  who  were  in  those  parts,  for  they  all  knew  that 
his  father  was  a  Greek. 

[Paul  also  wrote  to  the  churches  of  Galatia]:  Paul,  an 
apostle,  sent  not  by  man,  nor  commanded  by  any  man, 
but  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father,  who  raised  him 
from  the  dead,  and  all  the  brothers  who  are  with  me,  to 
the  churches  of  Galatia:  Grace  and  peace  to  you  from 
God  our  Father,  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  gave  him- 
self for  our  sins,  to  set  us  free  from  the  present  evil  world, 
in  accordance  with  the  will  of  our  God  and  Father,  to  whom 
be  glory  for  ever  and  ever.     Amen. 

I  am  astonished  that  you  are  so  hastily  deserting  him 
who  called  you  by  the  grace  of  Christ  and  going  over  to 
another  gospel.  It  simply  means  that  certain  ones  are 
unsettling  you  and  desire  to  pervert  the  gospel  of  Christ. 
Now,  even  if  we  or  some  angel  from  heaven  preach  a  gospel 
different  from  that  gospel  which  I  preached  to  you,  may 
God's  curse  be  on  him!    As  I  have  said  it  before,  so  I 

100 


PAUL'S  THESIS  IN  GALATIANS 

say  it  now:  whoever  preaches  a  gospel  to  you  different 
from  the  gospel  you  have  received,  let  God's  curse  be  on 
him! 

O  foolish  Galatians,  who  has  bewitched  you— you,  before  The 

whose  eyes  Jesus  Christ  the  crucified  has  been  vividly  jrfthe 

presented?    One  thing  only  I  wish  to  learn  from  you:  did  sp^ 

you  receive  the  Spirit  by  doing  what  the  law  commands,  Soned 

or  by  believing  the  gospel  message?    Are  you  so  foolish?  g-th 

Did  you  begin  with  the  Spirit  to  end  now  with  the  flesh?  *sthe 

Have  you  had  all  that  experience  in  vain— if  it  has  really  ?ai& 

been  in  vain?    When  he  supplieth  you  with  the  Spirit  and  g^, 

worketh  miracles  in  you,  is  it  because  you  do  what  the  law  ?f  *»- 

commands,  or  because  you  believe  the  gospel  message?  Si  of 

It  is  as  it  was  with  Abraham,  who  had  faith  in  God  and  it  ^So" 

was  reckoned  to  him  as  righteousness.    Know  then  that  (31-7) 
those  who  have  faith  are  the  real  sons  of  Abraham. 

Before  faith  came,  we  were  confined  by  the  law  and  limited  Faith 

to  the  faith  that  was  to  be  revealed.    Thus  the  law  was  Christ 

our  tutor  until  Christ  should  come,  that  we  might  be  justi-  gf£jfa 

fied  by  faith.    But  since  the  faith  has  come,  we  are  no  son?611 

longer  under  a  tutor;  for  you  are  all  sons  of  God  by  your  SSlisof 

faith  in  Christ  Jesus,  for  as  many  of  you  as  have  been  God 
baptized  in  Christ  have  taken  on  the  character  of  Christ. 
There  is  no  longer  Jew  nor  Greek,  slave  nor  free,  male  and 
female;  for  you  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus.  Now,  if  you 
are  Christ's,  then  are  you  Abraham's  offspring;  by  virtue 
of  the  promise  you  are  heirs. 

What  I  mean  is  this.  As  long  as  an  heir  is  under  age,  jesus 
there  is  no  difference  between  him  and  a  slave,  although  Sjough 
he  is  lord  of  all  things :  he  is  under  guardians  and  stewards  *&*& 
until  the  time  fixed  by  his  father.  So  with  us  also.  When  ship011" 
we  were  under  age,  we  lived  under  the  bondage  of  the  %tS~ 
elemental  spirits  of  the  world;  but,  when  the  fullness  of  gom 
time  had  come,  God  sent  forth  his  son,  born  of  a  woman,  age  to 
born  under  law  to  ransom  those  who  were  under  the  law,  and1 
in  order  that  we  might  receive  our  right  of  sonship.  Be-  tea- 
cause  you  are  sons,  God  has  sent  forth  the  spirit  of  his  son  gods 
into  our  hearts,  crying  Abba!  Father!  So  you  are  no  (417) 
longer  a  slave  but  a  son  and,  as  son,  also  an  heir  through] 
God. 

101 


the  law 
to 


PAUL'S  LETTER  TO  THE  GALATIANS 

But  in  those  days,  when  you  did  not  know  God,  you  were 
in  bondage  to  those  who  by  nature  are  no  gods;  but,  now 
that  you  know  God,  or  rather  are  known  by  God,  how  is  it 
that  you  are  turning  back  again  to  the  weak,  poverty  stricken, 
elemental  spirits?  Why  do  you  wish  to  be  enslaved  all 
tfiejaw  over  again  by  them?  You  observe  days,  and  months, 
and  festal  seasons  and  years !  You  make  me  afraid  that  I 
may  have  spent  my  labor  on  you  in  vain! 
Their  I  beg  of  you  be  as  I  am,  for  I  was  even  as  you,  brothers. 
at§-ged  You  did  me  no  wrong,  although  you  knew  it  was  because 
££!..,*  of  an  illness  that  I  preached  the  gospel  to  you  on  my  former 
visit.  And,  though  my  flesh  was  a  trial  to  you,  you  did  not 
despise  nor  scoff  at  me  but  received  me  as  an  angel  of 
God,  like  Christ  Jesus.  Now  what  has  become  of  all  your 
congratulations?  For  I  can  testify  that  you  would  have 
torn  out  your  very  eyes,  if  you  could,  and  given  them  to 
me.  Have  I  become  your  enemy  because  I  have  spoken 
the  truth  to  you?  These  men  seek  you  zealously  but  not 
honestly;  rather  they  desire  to  shut  you  out  from  me  in 
order  that  you  may  zealously  seek  them.  Now  it  is  a  fine 
thing  for  you  to  be  zealously  sought  for  at  all  times  in  the 
right  manner— not  only  when  I  can  be  with  you.  My  lit- 
tle children,  you  for  whom  I  am  again  in  travail  until  Christ 
be  formed  within  you,  would  that  I  might  be  with  you  at  this 
time  and  alter  my  tone,  for  I  am  at  my  wit's  end  about  you! 
See!  I,  Paul,  say  to  you:  if  you  let  yourselves  be  circum- 
cised, Christ  will  be  of  no  use  to  you.  I  assert  again  to 
everyone  that  lets  himself  be  circumcised  that  he  is  under 
obligation  to  carry  out  the  whole  of  the  law.  You  who  seek 
justification  in  the  law  are  done  with  Christ.  You  have 
fallen  from  grace,  for  it  is  by  faith  that  we  wait  in  the  Spirit 
for  the  hope  of  righteousness.  For  in  Christ  Jesus  neither 
circumcision  nor  uncircumcision  avails  anything,  but  only 
faith  and  love. 
The  Brothers,  you  were  called  to  be  free;  only  do  not  make 

hberty    vour  freedom  an  opportunity  for  the  flesh,  but  serve  one 
(13-16)      another  in  love.    For  the  entire  law  is  summed  up  in  one 
word,  You  must  love  your  neighbor  as  yourself.    But,  if 
you  bite  and  devour  one  another,  take  care  lest  you  be  not 
destroyed  by  one  another. 

102 


THE  GUIDANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT 

I  mean,  walk  by  the  Spirit;  then  you  will  not  satisfy  the  The 
inclinations  of  the  flesh.    For  the  inclination  of  the  flesh  gfCe" 
is  against  the  spirit,  and  the  inclination  of  the  spirit  is  jf^e 
against  the  flesh ;  for  these  two  are  opposed  to  each  other,   (^») 
so  that  you  are  not  free  to  do  as  you  please.    But,  if  you 
are  led  by  the  spirit,  you  are  not  under  the  sway  of  the  law. 

Now  the  deeds  of  the  flesh  are  quite  evident,  such  as  The 
sexual  vice,  impurity,  sensuality,  idolatry,  sorcery,  quarrels,  JJJttw 
contention,  jealousy,  anger,  rivalry,  factions,  party  spirit,  flesh 
envy,  drinking  bouts,  revelry,  and  the  like.    I  tell  you  be-  tie  ° 
forehand,  as  I  have  told  you  already,  that  those  who  do  ^JS* 
these  things  will  never  inherit  the  Kingdom  of  God.    But 
the  fruit  of  the  spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace,  forbearance,  kind- 
ness, generosity,  fidelity,  gentleness,  self-control— there  is 
no  law  against  those  who  do  these  things. 

Now  those  who  belong  to  Christ  have  crucified  the  flesh  The 
with  its  passions  and  inclinations.    If  we  live  by  the  spirit,  §^" 
let  us  walk  also  in  the  spirit.    Let  us  not  be  vain  nor  given  ya7  of 
to  provoking  or  envying  one  another.    Even  if  anyone  is  (s^fo 
caught  in  some  wrong  act,  brothers,  you  who  are  spiritual 
must  set  such  a  one  right  in  a  spirit  of  gentleness.    Let  each 
one  of  you  look  to  himself  lest  you  be  tempted.    Bear  one 
another's  burdens  and  so  fulfill  the  law  of  Christ.    If  any- 
one imagines  that  he  is  somebody  when  he  is  nobody,  he 
is  deceiving  himself.    Let  everyone  test  his  own  work  and 
then  he  will  have  something  to  boast  about  on  his  own  ac- 
count, and  not  in  comparison  with  his  neighbor.   For  every- 
one will  have  to  bear  his  own  load.    Each  one  who  is 
taught  should  share  all  the  good  things  of  life  with  those 
who  teach  him  the  word. 

Be  not  deceived ;  God  is  not  to  be  mocked :  for  whatever  The 
a  man  sows,  that  shall  he  also  reap.    He  who  sows  for  his  of  51st 
own  flesh  shall  from  the  flesh  reap  destruction,  and  he  who  <7 10> 
sows  for  the  spirit  shall  reap  from  the  spirit  life  eternal. 
And  let  us  not  grow  weary  of  doing  what  is  right,  for  in 
due  season  we  shall  reap  if  we  faint  not.     So  then,  as  we 
have  opportunity,  let  us  do  good  to  all  men  and  especially 
to  those  who  are  of  the  household  of  the  faith. 

See  what  big  letters  I  make  when  I  write  with  mine  own 
hand!    These  men  who  are  seeking  to  compel  you  to  be 

103 


(11-18) 


PAUL'S  LETTER  TO  THE  GALATIANS 

Pauls  circumcised  desire  to  make  a  fine  show  in  the  flesh.  It  is 
!S£n  simply  that  they  may  not  be  persecuted  for  the  cross  of 
^e.  Christ.  For  even  they  who  have  been  circumcised  do  not 
diction  keep  the  law  themselves;  but  they  desire  to  have  you  cir- 
cumcised so  that  they  may  boast  over  your  flesh!  But 
far  be  it  from  me  to  glory  except  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  by  which  the  world  has  been  crucified  to  me 
and  I  to  the  world.  For  what  counts  is  neither  circumcision 
nor  uncircumcision,  but  the  new  creation,  and  on  as  many 
as  will  walk  by  this  rule  may  peace  and  mercy  rest,  even 
upon  the  Israel  of  God. 

Henceforth,  let  no  man  interfere  with  me,  for  I  bear 
branded  on  my  body  the  marks  of  Jesus. 

The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  your  spirit, 
brothers.    Amen. 

I.  Date  and  Aim  of  Paul's  Second  Missionary  Campaign. 

Paul  probably  set  out  on  his  second  missionary  campaign  in  the  early 
autumn  of  49  a.d.  He' was  eager  to  get  away  from  the  dissensions 
raised  by  the  Judaizers  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch.  Acts  states  that 
his  primary  purpose  was  to  visit  the  Galatian  churches,  doubtless  with 
a  view  to  strengthening  them  (Acts  165).  He  also  aimed  to  prepare 
them  for  the  problems  that  he  saw  before  them.  His  ultimate  purpose 
was  to  carry  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  westward  throughout  the  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor  immediately  beyond  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia 
which  had  been  the  scene  of  his  earlier  work.  The  great  metropolitan 
city  of  Ephesus,  the  commercial  and  religious  capital  of  the  province 
of  Asia,  was  clearly  Paul's  definite  objective.  His  comprehensive  aim 
even  at  this  period  was  evidently  to  conquer  the  great  Gentile  world 
that  had  been  assigned  to  him  at  the  memorable  interview  at  Jeru- 
salem. Paul  sought  not  only  to  extend  his  conquests  to  the  great 
political  and  social  centres  of  this  Gentile  world,  but  also,  at  this  critical 
stage,  to  make  each  field  in  which  he  preached  and  planted  churches 
the  base  for  the  next  advance. 

II.  Revisiting  the  Galatian  Churches.  Paul  was  evidently 
the  one  who  originally  proposed  to  Barnabas  that  they  face  the  perils 
of  Asia  Minor  and  penetrate  again  to  the  heart  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Galatia.  Throughout  this  arduous  but  successful  enterprise  Paul 
had  taken  the  initiative.  The  reason  given  in  Acts  why  Barnabas  did 
not  accompany  Paul  in  his  second  visit  to  this  field  is  their  disagree- 

104 


REVISITING  THE  GALATIAN  CHURCHES 

ment  about  taking  John  Mark  with  them.  Probably  a  deeper  reason 
was  their  disagreement  regarding  the  right  and  wisdom  of  letting 
Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  freely  associate  together  without  im- 
posing on  either  any  ceremonial  limitation.  Moreover,  Barnabas's 
interest  lay  in  his  homeland,  Cyprus;  Paul's  in  the  unconquered  ter- 
ritory beyond  his  native  city,  Tarsus.  Paul's  later  references  to 
Barnabas  indicate  that  there  was  no  permanent  alienation  (I  Cor.  96, 
Col.  410).  The  separation  of  these  two  pioneer  apostles  to  the  Gentiles 
appears  to  have  resulted  in  a  tacit,  or  possibly  definitely  defined  di- 
vision of  the  Gentile  field.  Tradition  says  that  Barnabas  not  only 
went  to  Cyprus  but  also  to  Egypt,  which  early  became  an  important 
Christian  centre.  Egypt  also  had  a  great  Jewish  population  and 
might  well  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  sphere  of  activity  set  aside 
for  the  Twelve.  At  least  some  such  implied  division  of  territory 
best  explains  why  Paul  with  his  world-wide  outlook  and  tireless 
zeal  never  visited  nor  even  alludes  in  his  letters  to  the  populous 
land  of  the  Nile  and  the  flourishing  cities  on  the  southern  Mediter- 
ranean. 

Starting  from  Antioch  and  taking  Silas,  who  was  an  influential 
member  of  the  Jerusalem  church  and  likewise  possessed  Roman 
citizenship  (Acts  1637)  and  was  therefore  a  Hellenist,  Paul  set  out 
northward  on  the  great  highway  that  led  through  Asia  Minor  to  Rome. 
On  the  way  he  probably  strengthened  the  Christian  churches  which 
he  had  established  during  the  first  thirteen  years  of  his  ministry  in 
northern  Syria  and  Cilicia.  Unfortunately,  Luke  has  not  preserved 
the  names  of  these  churches.  That  there  was  one  at  Tarsus  is  reason- 
ably certain.  Thence,  following  the  great  Roman  highway,  they  passed 
through  the  cities  which  Paul  had  visited  together  with  Barnabas. 
Paul's  circumcision  of  the  half -Jewish  youth  Timothy,  whom  he  wished 
to  accompany  him  on  his  visit  to  the  strongly  Jewish  churches  at 
Iconium  and  Galatian  Antioch,  is  not  a  repudiation  of  the  principles 
for  which  he  contended  at  Jerusalem  but  rather  an  illustration  of  his 
avowed  purpose,  with  the  Jews  "to  become  like  a  Jew  to  win  over 
Jews."  Unfortunately  Luke,  instead  of  giving  details  regarding  the 
visit  to  these  churches,  has  simply  introduced  one  of  his  general  sum- 
maries (Acts,  164>  5).  In  keeping  with  his  assumption  that  Paul  had 
accepted  the  resolutions  of  James  and  the  other  authorities  at  Jeru- 
salem, he  states  that  Paul  formally  transmitted  these  to  the  different 
churches.  What  Paul  actually  did  can  best  be  learned  from  his  own 
testimony  in  his  letter  to  the  Galatians. 

105 


PAUL'S  LETTER  TO  THE  GALATIANS 

III.     The  Occasion  of  Paul's  Letter  to  the  Galatians.    The 

interpreter  of  Paul's  letter  to  the  Galatians  is  at  once  confronted  with 
a  much-debated  question.  Did  Paul  write  this  letter  to  the  churches 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  which  he  and  Barnabas  had  estab- 
lished during  their  first  missionary  campaign,  or  was  it  written  to 
Christian  churches  farther  north  organized  by  Paul  in  the  old  province 
of  Galatia  during  his  second  missionary  campaign?  Volumes  have 
been  written  in  defense  of  each  of  these  positions  and  New  Testament 
scholars  are  about  equally  divided.  Fortunately,  our  appreciation  of 
Paul's  vigorous  letter  to  the  Galatians  and  of  the  superb  spirit  and 
personality  which  it  reveals  is  not  dependent  upon  the  answer  to  these 
questions.  The  chief  corner-stone  of  what  is  known  as  the  "North 
Galatian  theory"  is  Luke's  statement  in  Acts  166,  following  his  summary 
of  Paul's  work  in  Derbe,  Lystra,  and  Iconium,  that  "they  crossed  the 
Phrygian  and  Galatian  region,  the  Holy  Spirit  having  stopped  them 
from  preaching  the  word  in  Asia;  when  they  got  as  far  as  Mysia  they 
tried  to  enter  Bithynia,  but  the  spirit  of  Jesus  would  not  allow  them, 
and  so  they  passed  by  Mysia  and  went  down  to  Troas."  Many  hold 
that  the  most  natural  interpretation  of  this  statement  is  that,  having 
passed  through  the  Derbe,  Lystra,  and  Iconium,  which  were  in  ancient 
Phrygia,  they  turned  northward  to  the  old  province  of  Galatia  and 
from  thence  westward  to  the  seaport  of  Troas.  It  is  difficult,  however, 
to  explain  why  Luke  is  absolutely  silent  regarding  Paul's  activity  in 
this  northern  province,  if  it  had  been  significant  enough  in  its  results 
to  call  forth  the  powerful  letter  to  the  Galatians.  In  view  of  Paul's 
avowed  purpose,  we  naturally  anticipate  that,  after  leaving  Iconium,  he 
would  go  directly  to  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  which  also  lay  in  the  Roman 
province  of  Galatia — in  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  believe  that 
he  failed  to  visit  this  important  scene  of  his  earlier  work.  The  abso- 
lute absence  of  any  reference  or  suggestion,  either  in  Acts  or  in  Paul's 
own  letters,  that  implies  a  period  of  successful  missionary  activity 
in  the  old  province  of  Galatia  leaves  to  the  "North  Galatian  theory," 
to  say  the  least,  a  very  uncertain  and  indefinite  basis.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  churches  founded  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  their  first  cam- 
paign were  on  the  direct  highway  from  Syria  to  Rome,  and  therefore 
most  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  Judaizers  to  which  Paul  frequently 
refers  in  his  letter  to  the  Galatians.  It  is  also  exceedingly  probable 
that  Paul  the  traveller  and  Roman  citizen  would  use  the  term  Galatia 
in  its  contemporary  Roman  rather  than  in  its  older  local  application. 
This  conclusion  is  supported  by  his  custom  at  other  times.     In  any 

106 


THE  OCCASION  OF  PAUL'S  LETTER 

case,  the  definitely  known  conditions  and  problems  of  the  south 
Galatian  cities  furnish  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
many  detailed  allusions  contained  in  Paul's  famous  letter,  so  that  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  churches  at  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe  were  in  his  mind  as  he  wrote. 

If  Galatians  was  written  to  these  churches,  it  must  have  been  after 
Paul  had  revisited  them  at  the  beginning  of  his  second  missionary 
campaign.  His  inability  to  visit  them  again,  to  which  he  alludes  at 
the  beginning  of  his  letter,  suggests  strongly  that  he  was  not  in  An- 
tioch nor  the  East,  but  already  actively  engaged  in  his  work  either  at 
Corinth  or  Ephesus.  Apparently  the  Judaizers,  to  which  he  refers, 
followed  close  in  his  footsteps  after  leaving  Antioch  and  had  worked 
quietly  and  almost  unknown  to  him  while  he  was  busy  in  the  western 
field.  At  the  same  time  the  questions  involved  are  the  direct  after- 
math of  the  interview  at  Jerusalem  and  the  reaction  at  Antioch  to 
which  Paul  refers.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  is  one  of  the  three  earliest  of  Paul's  letters  and  was  prob- 
ably written  during  the  earlier  part  of  his  ministry  at  Corinth. 

IV.  The  Literary  Structure  and  Contents  of  Galatians. 
Paul's  letter  to  the  Galatians  falls  naturally  into  four  divisions,  with  an 
impassioned  introduction  found  in  l1-9.  Chapters  l10-221  contain 
Paul's  masterful  declaration  of  independence  and  authority.  Rapidly 
and  evidently  under  the  pressure  of  great  feeling,  he  marshals  the  im- 
portant events  in  his  own  career  and  especially  his  relations  to  the 
''pillars"  at  Jerusalem,  concluding  the  description  with  a  statement 
of  the  terms  agreed  upon  in  his  famous  interview  at  Jerusalem  and 
their  later  interpretation  at  Antioch.  The  second  main  division  of 
the  letter,  S1-^12,  contains  his  defense  of  his  gospel  of  freedom  from  the 
law  and  of  justification  by  faith  through  Jesus  Christ.  In  513-610  he 
corrects  the  possible  misinterpretations  of  his  gospel  of  freedom  by 
defining  the  moral  responsibility  of  those  that  hold  the  Christian  faith. 
The  epilogue,  611'18,  recapitulates  in  short,  forcible  sentences  the  chief 
points  for  which  he  was  contending  and  concludes  with  the  usual 
benediction.  This  epistle  has  been  appropriately  likened  to  one  of  the 
dashing  mountain  torrents,  which  in  many  of  the  fields  of  Paul's  activ- 
ity leap  from  the  heights  above,  at  first  sweeping  away  all  opposition, 
but  in  time  gradually  broadening  out  to  water  the  plain  below.  As 
Sabatier  has  said,  here  "unfinished  phrases,  daring  omissions,  paren- 
theses which  leave  us  out  of  sight  and  out  of  breath,  rabbinical  sub- 
tleties, dashing  paradoxes,  vehement  apostrophes  pour  on  like  surging 

107 


PAUL'S  LETTER  TO  THE  GALATIANS 

billows."  Here  Paul  writes  as  he  would  doubtless  have  spoken  could 
he  have  stood  in  the  presence  of  the  faltering  and  much-confused  Chris- 
tians of  Galatia.  It  is  Paul  the  militant  who  is  here  revealed,  the  man 
who  quickly  proved  himself  the  master  of  every  situation  into  which 
Providence  led  him. 

He  is  fighting  here  not  merely  for  the  faith  of  the  Galatian  Christians 
but  also  for  the  fundamental  principles  of  Christian  liberty.  It  was 
the  age-long  issue  between  the  authority  of  accepted  tradition  and 
ceremonialism  and  the  authority  of  the  Spirit  of  God  in  the  heart  and 
life  of  the  individual.  The  principle  was  the  same  for  which  Jesus 
contended  against  the  Pharisees,  Luther  against  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  modern  Christianity  against  ecclesiastical  and  literalistic  con- 
servatism. 

V.  Paul's  Interpretation  of  the  Significance  of  the  Jewish 
Law  and  of  the  Work  of  Jesus.  It  is  evident  that  Paul's  opponents 
made  a  strong  and  plausible  appeal  to  the  Galatian  Christians.  They 
had  the  whole  weight  of  Jewish  tradition  back  of  them.  Their  charge 
that  Paul  was  an  iconoclast,  who  rejected  as  useless  the  greater  part 
of  the  Jewish  law,  was  valid.  In  comparison  with  the  definite  way 
of  salvation  presented  by  that  law,  Paul's  gospel  must  have  seemed 
to  many  minds  somewhat  vague.  In  supporting  his  position  Paul 
reveals  in  this  letter  his  marvellous  skill  in  appealing  to  the  intellects 
as  well  as  to  the  hearts  of  men.  His  first  appeal  is  to  the  inner  spiritual 
experience  of  the  Galatian  Christians  themselves.  Was  it  the  teachings 
of  the  Judaizers  or  Paul's  gospel  which  had  given  them  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  presence  of  the  divine  Spirit  in  their  hearts  and  lives  ? 
The  phenomena  of  speaking  with  tongues  and  miracles  had  further 
attested  the  divine  origin  of  his  gospel.  In  Paul's  mind  this  evidence 
of  spiritual  experience  transcended  all  others.  His  next  line  of  evi- 
dence was  historical.  Abraham,  the  forefather  of  his  race  knew  nothing 
of  the  later  law,  but  to  him  had  been  given  the  divine  promises  of 
which  the  work  of  Jesus  was  the  fruition.  These  promises  had  been 
given  not  only  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  but  to  all,  both  Jew 
and  Gentile,  who  shared  his  faith.  What,  after  all,  had  the  law  ac- 
complished? In  answering  this  question,  Paul  evidently  drew  from 
his  own  personal  experience.  It  developed,  he  declared,  a  conscious- 
ness of  sin,  which,  on  the  one  side,  pointed  only  to  death  as  its  just 
penalty,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  in  opening  the  minds  of  men  to  the 
need  of  divine  forgiveness,  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  fulfilment  of 
God's  promises  and  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  of  Jesus.    Gen- 

108 


PAUL'S  VALUATION  OF  THE  JEWISH  LAW 

tiles  and  Jews  alike  were  subject  to  the  laws  of  nature,  which  they 
believed  to  be  controlled  by  elemental  spirits.  Hitherto  men  had  been 
like  immature  children,  under  the  tutelage  of  the  law  or  of  their  im- 
perfect religious  beliefs;  but  now  at  last  humanity  was  about  to  enter 
into  its  heritage.  Through  Jesus,  whose  central  teaching  had  been 
the  fatherhood  of  God  and  man's  divine  sonship,  man  had  been  de- 
livered from  its  old  bondage.  "He  was  no  longer  a  slave  but  a  son  and 
as  son  also  God's  heir."  Therefore  he  assures  the  Galatian  Christians 
that  their  inner  spiritual  experience,  the  consciousness,  "of  Christ 
formed  within  them,"  was  the  only  and  supreme  evidence  that  they 
were  the  heirs  of  the  promises  given  to  Abraham  and  indeed  the  sons 
of  God.  To  adopt  the  rite  of  circumcision  and  to  go  back  to  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  would  be  to  substitute  form  for 
the  Spirit  and  to  repudiate  the  divine  heritage  which  had  come  to  them 
through  the  work  of  Jesus. 

VI.  The  Responsibilities  of  Spiritual  Liberty.  To  Paul, 
faith  and  life  in  Christ  had  brought  liberty.  Christian  liberty  is  one 
of  his  favorite  themes;  but  Paul  always  guarded  against  its  interpre- 
tation as  license.  He  strongly  asserts  that  freedom  from  the  law  does 
not  mean  liberty  to  follow  one's  wayward  caprices.  It  means  rather, 
constant  loyalty  to  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit.  Indeed,  those  who  "be- 
long to  Christ  have  crucified  the  flesh  with  its  passions  and  inclinations." 
Furthermore  in  Paul's  vocabulary,  liberty  is  a  synonym  for  responsi- 
bility. Not  only  is  the  Christian  to  bear  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  (which 
he  defines)  but  also  "to  bear  one  another's  burdens  and  so  fulfil  the 
law  of  Christ" — that  higher  spiritual  law  which  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  old  Jewish  law.  The  one  supreme  principle,  he  declares,  in 
that  new  law  is  love:  "For  the  entire  law  is  summed  up  in  one  word, 
'You  must  love  your  neighbor  as  yourself.'  "  Thus  the  epistle  opens 
with  powerful  invective,  which  merges  into  impassioned  argument 
and  then  in  conclusion  strikes  Paul's  ever-dominant  note,  that  of  love. 

§CLIV.    PAUL'S  MISSIONARY  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

Paul  and  his  associates  crossed  the  Phrygian  and  Galatian  The 
country,  but  were  prevented  by  the  Holy  Spirit  from  preach-  j^Tto 
ing  the  word  in  the  province  of  Asia.     When  they  reached  Trog 
Mysia,  they  tried  to  enter  Bithynia,  but  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  i6«^> 
would  not  allow  them,  and  so,  passing  by  Mysia,  they  went 
down  to  Troas. 

109 


PAUL'S  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

The  There  a  vision  appeared  to  Paul  by  night:    a  man  in 

togoto  Macedonia  was  standing  and  appealing  to  him  and  saying, 
don^r    Come  over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us.    As  soon  as  he 
(••l0)      saw  the  vision,  we  immediately  made  efforts  to  go  on  to 
Macedonia,  inferring  that  God  had  called  us  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  them. 
Arrival       Then  setting  sail  from  Troas,  we  ran  straight  to  Samo- 
SppillJ  thrace  and  on  the  next  day  to  Neapolis,  thence  to  the 
(1112)     Roman  colony  of  Philippi,  which  is  the  foremost  city  of 
the  district  of  Macedonia.    In  this  city  we  spent  some 
days. 
Lydias       On  the  sabbath  we  went  outside  the  gate  by  the  river, 
velSon  where  we  had  reason  to  believe  there  was  a  place  of  prayer; 
(1316)      and  we  sat  down  and  talked  to  the  women  who  had  gath- 
ered.   Among  our  hearers  was  a  woman  by  the  name  of 
Lydia,  a  dealer  in  purple,  who  belonged  to  the  city  of 
Thyatira  and  was  a  worshipper  of  God.    The  Lord  opened 
her  heart  to  attend  to  what  Paul  was  saying.    When  she 
and  her  household  had  been  baptized,  she  begged  us,  say- 
ing, If  you  are  convinced  that  I  am  a  believer  in  the  Lord, 
come  and  stay  in  my  house.    And  she  compelled  us  to 
come. 
The  Now  it  happened  as  we  were  going  to  the  place  of  prayer 

oft       that  a  slave  girl  met  us  who  had  a  spirit  of  ventriloquism 
^ve      and  brought  great  profit  to  her  owners  by  telling  fortunes. 
(wis)      she  kept  following  Paul  and  the  rest  of  us  crying  aloud, 
These  men  are  servants  of  the  Most  High  God;  they  pro- 
claim to  you  the  way  of  salvation.    This  she  did  for  many 
days.    Then  Paul,  completely  worn  out,  said  to  the  spirit, 
In  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  I  order  you  to  come  out  of  her. 
And  it  came  out  of  her  immediately. 
The  But  when  her  owners  saw  that  their  hope  of  profit  was 

ofpaui  gone,  they  caught  hold  of  Paul  and  Silas  and  dragged  them 
sui  int0  the  forum  before  the  magistrates.  Bringing  them  be- 
(i»-24)  fore  the  praetors  they  said,  These  are  Jews  who  are  making 
a  disturbance  in  our  city;  they  are  proclaiming  customs 
which  we  Romans  are  not  allowed  to  adopt  or  observe.  The 
crowd  also  joined  in  the  attack  upon  them,  while  the  prae- 
tors, after  having  stripped  them,  ordered  them  to  be  flogged. 
After  they  had  inflicted  many  lashes  upon  them  they  put 

110 


THE  ARREST  OF  PAUL  AND  SILAS 

them  into  prison,  charging  the  jailer  to  keep  them  safe. 
He,  on  receiving  such  an  order,  put  them  into  the  inner 
prison  and  secured  their  feet  in  the  stocks. 

About  midnight,  as  Paul  and  Silas  were  praying  and  The 
singing  to  God  and  while  the  prisoners  were  listening  to  con-r  s 
them,  there  was  suddenly  such  a  great  earthquake  that  it  yersfon 
shook  the  very  foundations  of  the  prison.  All  the  doors 
immediately  flew  open  and  the  fetters  of  all  the  prisoners 
were  unfastened.  The  jailer,  starting  up  from  sleep  and 
seeing  the  prison  wide  open,  drew  his  sword  and  was 
about  to  kill  himself,  supposing  that  the  prisoners  had  made 
their  escape.  But  Paul  said  with  a  loud  voice,  Do  not 
harm  yourself,  for  we  are  all  here!  So,  calling  for  lights, 
the  jailer  rushed  in,  fell  trembling  before  Paul  and  Silas, 
and  brought  them  out  of  the  prison.  Sirs,  he  said,  what 
must  I  do  to  be  saved  ?  Believe  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
said  Paul,  and  both  you  and  your  household  will  be  saved. 
And  they  spoke  the  word  of  the  Lord  to  him  and  to  all  his 
house.  Then  he  took  them  at  that  very  hour  of  the  night 
and  washed  their  wounds.  And  he  and  all  his  family  were 
immediately  baptized.  Then  taking  them  to  his  house,  he 
put  food  before  them  and  rejoiced  with  all  his  household 
at  having  believed  in  God. 

The  next  morning  the  praetors  sent  the  lictors  with  the  The 
order,  Release  these  men.    The  jailer  announced  these  oftb? 
words  to  Paul,  saying,  The  praetors  have  sent  to  release  fgf" 
you.     So  now  come  out  and  go  in  peace.    But  Paul  replied,   C3*-40) 
They  flogged  us  in  public  without  trial,  we  who  are  Roman 
citizens !    They  put  us  in  prison,  and  now  they  are  going  to 
eject  us  secretly!    Far  be  it!     Rather  let  them  come  here 
themselves  and  take  us  out.    The  lictors  reported  these 
words  to  the  praetors,  who,  on  hearing  that  the  men  were 
Roman  citizens,  were  filled  with  alarm,  and  came  to  ap- 
pease them,  and,  after  taking  them  out  of  prison,  begged 
them  to  leave  the  city.     So  leaving  the  prison,  they  went 
to  Lydia's  house,  where  they  saw  the  brothers  and  en- 
couraged them;  then  they  departed.  pre^L 

Then  travelling  on  to  Amphipolis  and  Apollonia,  they  Jgyj 
reached  Thessalonica,  where  there  was  a  Jewish  syna-  saion- 
gogue.    And,  as  was  his  custom,  Paul  went  in  to  them  and  (Jtm) 

111 


PAUL'S  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

for  three  sabbaths  argued  with  them  from  the  scriptures, 
explaining  and  quoting  passages  to  show  that  the  Mes- 
siah had  to  suffer  and  rise  from  the  dead,  and  that  the  Jesus 
I  proclaim  to  you  is  the  Messiah.  Some  were  persuaded 
and  attached  themselves  to  Paul  and  Silas,  including 
many  devout  Greeks  and  not  a  few  of  the  leading  women. 
The  But  the  Jews,  stirred  by  jealousy,  called  to  their  aid  some 

Sidled  idle  fellows  and  formed  a  mob  and  set  the  city  in  an  up- 
jewshe    roar*    Attacking  Jason's  house,  they  endeavored  to  bring 
(«-•)       Paul  and  Silas  out  before  the  people,  but  failing  to  find 
them,  they  dragged  Jason  and  some  of  the  brothers  before 
the  politarchs,  shouting,  These  men,  who  have  raised  a 
tumult  through  the  whole  world,  have   come  here  too! 
Jason  has  welcomed  them!    These  all  violate  the  decrees 
of  Caesar  by  declaring  that  there  is  another  king  called 
Jesus.    Great  was  the  excitement  among  the  crowd  and 
the  politarchs  when  they  heard  this;  but  after  binding 
Jason  and  the  others  over  to  keep  the  peace,  they  released 
them. 
Paul  Then  the  brothers  at  once  sent  off  Paul  and  Silas  at 

suasat  night  to  Beroea.    And  they,  on  arriving  there,  went  to  the 
J™a    Jewish   synagogue.    The  people   there   were   more   noble 
than  at  Thessalonica,  for  they  very  readily  received  the 
word  and  daily  studied  the  scriptures  to  see  if  it  really  was 
as  Paul  said.    As  a  result  many  of  them  believed,  together 
with  a  large  number  of  prominent  Greeks,  both  men  and 
women. 
Pauls        But  as  soon  as  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica  heard  that  the 
neTto    word  of  God  was  being  proclaimed  at  Beroea  as  well,  they 
Athens  came  to  create  a  disturbance  there  and  a  riot  among  the 
crowd  at  Beroea.    Then  the  brothers  at  once  sent  Paul 
down  to  the  sea  coast,  while  Silas  and  Timothy  remained 
there.    Those  who  accompanied  Paul  brought  him  as  far 
as  Athens  and  left  with  orders  that  Silas  and  Timothy  were 
to  come  to  him  as  soon  as  possible. 

I.  Paul's  Quest  of  a  New  Mission  Field.  The  narrative  of 
Acts  166"8  is  exceedingly  condensed  and  leaves  us  in  uncertainty  re- 
garding many  questions.  The  inference  is  that  Paul,  all  the  way  from 
Iconium  until  he  finally  found  himself  at  Troas,  was  seeking  vainly 

112 


PAUL'S  QUEST  OF  A  NEW  FIELD 

for  a  suitable  field  for  missionary  activity.  The  phrases  "forbidden 
by  the  Holy  Spirit"  and  "the  Spirit  of  Jesus  would  not  allow  them" 
are  already  familiar  to  the  reader  of  the  book  of  Acts.  In  Acts  214 
it  is  stated  that  the  disciples  "told  Paul  by  the  Spirit  not  to  set  foot 
in  Jerusalem."  This  statement  apparently  points  to  a  prophetic 
utterance  under  the  influence  of  ecstasy,  and  the  same  psychological 
phenomena  probably  lie  back  of  the  statements  in  Acts  16.  Accord- 
ing to  Acts  1532,  Silas,  Paul's  companion,  already  had  a  reputation  as 
a  prophet.  It  is  possible  that  he  was  the  spokesman  of  the  Spirit  on 
these  occasions.  The  analogy  of  Galatians  22  points,  however,  to  a 
decision  in  Paul's  own  mind  made  under  the  influence  of  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  facts  involved.  This  was  apparently  the  way 
in  which  he  made  most  of  the  important  decisions  of  his  life.  Facts 
and  truths,  which  were  more  or  less  central  in  his  thought,  were  sud- 
denly and,  as  it  seemed  to  him,  miraculously  crystallized  into  an  abso- 
lute conviction  which  he  regarded  as  divinely  inspired  and  which  he 
henceforth  followed  unfalteringly.  Even  though  the  narrative  of 
Acts  at  this  point  is  meagre,  it  is  possible  to  conjecture  what  were  the 
underlying  reasons  which  led  Paul  to  turn  aside  from  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia  and  its  chief  city  Ephesus,  which  evidently  from  the 
first  had  been  the  objective  of  his  second  missionary  campaign.  It  is 
probable  that  already  a  small  Christian  community  was  found  at 
Ephesus  and  therefore  to  go  there  was  to  break  one  of  Paul's  funda- 
mental rules,  namely,  not  to  "build  on  another  man's  foundation" 
(Rom.  1520).  It  was  also  the  seat  of  an  exceedingly  popular  and 
strongly  intrenched  heathen  cult.  When  Paul  ultimately  visited  it, 
it  proved  a  very  difficult  field.  The  province  of  Bithynia,  from  which 
he  was  also  turned  aside,  was  situated  in  the  northwestern  corner  of 
Asia  Minor.  Pliny  the  Younger  in  his  famous  letter  to  Trajan,  written 
near  the  beginning  of  the  second  Christian  century,  indicates  that 
Christianity  at  a  very  early  period  had  gained  a  strong  foothold  in 
this  province.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  when  Paul  drew  near 
to  Bithynia  he  learned  that  already  other  Christian  missionaries  had 
anticipated  him.  From  a  topographical  point  of  view  it  was  also  a 
difficult  field  to  traverse,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  effects  of  the  ill- 
ness, to  which  Paul  refers  in  his  letters,  still  deterred  him  from  doing 
what  his  indomitable  spirit  longed  to  accomplish.  Thus  hemmed  in 
on  every  side,  he  at  last  found  himself  at  the  end  of  the  great  Roman 
highway  which  led  from  Syria  to  Europe.  Troas  was  the  door  that 
led  across  the  iEgean  to  Europe  and  to  Rome  itself,  the  ultimate  goal 

113 


PAUL'S  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

of  Paul's  ambition.  Should  he  abandon  his  well-established  policy 
of  pressing  on  from  province  to  province,  leaving  no  important 
strategic  centres  behind  him,  and  follow  instead  the  great  Roman 
highway  across  the  sea?  Would  he  succeed,  if  he  left  behind  him 
the  more  distinctly  Jewish  background  and  entered  the  very  different 
Greek  world? 

II.  Paul's  Vision  at  Troas.  It  is  significant  that  at  this  point 
in  Acts  the  history  is  written  in  the  first  person.  This  personal  testi- 
mony continues  until  Paul  reaches  Philippi  and  again  appears  when  he 
comes  back  to  Philippi  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  and  ultimately  to  Rome. 
The  most  natural  explanation  of  these  facts  is  that  Luke  lived  at 
Philippi,  and  that  either  by  chance  or  previous  arrangement  he  first 
met  Paul  at  Troas.  Ramsay's  suggestion  that  the  prototype  of  the 
man  of  Macedonia,  who  figures  in  Paul's  vision,  was  Luke  himself 
has  much  to  commend  it.  The  words  which  came  to  Paul  in  his  vision 
from  the  lips  of  the  man  in  Macedonia,  "Come  over  into  Macedonia 
and  help  us,"  suggest  strongly  that  the  one  who  uttered  them  was 
already  a  follower  of  Jesus  and  eager  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  the 
great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  The  fact  that  Paul  went  directly  to 
Philippi  and  began  there  rather  than  at  Thessalonica  his  mission  to  the 
Macedonians  strongly  indicates  that  the  words  of  Luke  lay  in  the 
background  of  Paul's  consciousness  when  he  had  his  epoch-making 
vision.  Such  incidents,  as  well  as  the  vision  itself,  were  in  perfect 
harmony  with  similar  experiences  in  Paul's  life.  Even  as  the  young 
patriot  Isaiah,  laboring  under  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility,  sud- 
denly beheld  a  vision  of  Jehovah  in  his  temple  and  was  thereby  conse- 
crated and  committed  to  his  life-work,  so  Paul  in  one  significant  mo- 
ment left  behind  all  uncertainty  and  recognized  that  he  was  divinely 
committed  to  the  evangelization  of  Macedonia. 

III.  Paul's  Work  in  Philippi.  Paul  on  landing  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  ^Egean  passed  through  the  seaport  of  Neapolis  and  pressed 
nine  miles  northward  to  Philippi,  not  the  metropolis  of  Macedonia  as 
the  author  of  Acts  states,  but  the  chief  city  on  the  southern  end  of  a 
great  plain.  This  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  river  which  lost  it- 
self in  a  huge  marsh  to  the  south  of  the  city.  Here  in  42  B.C.  Octavian 
and  Anthony  fought  their  great  decisive  battle  against  Brutus  and 
Cassius.  Here  the  ideal  of  a  republic  fell  before  that  of  an  empire. 
Octavian  in  his  gratitude  for  the  victory  made  Philippi  a  Roman 
colony  and  gave  it  a  thoroughly  Roman  form  of  government.  Here 
Paul  found  a  small  Jewish  community,  too  small  to  support  a  syna- 

114 


PAUL'S  WORK   IN  PHILIPPI 

gogue  but  accustomed  on  the  Jewish  Sabbath  to  meet  for  worship  by 
the  riverside.  In  this  group  Paul  found  Greek  proselytes  as  well  as 
Jews.  Chief  among  them  was  a  certain  Lydia  from  the  Lydian  city 
of  Thyatira.  She  was  evidently  a  woman  of  great  ability  and  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  wealth,  for  she  appears  to  have  had  a  bazaar, 
as  well  as  a  home  in  Philippi.  To  her  Paul's  preaching  appealed  so 
strongly  that  she  offered  her  home  as  a  centre  for  his  work.  There 
he  apparently  remained  for  some  months. 

Certain  details  in  Paul's  experience  at  Philippi  stand  out  clearly 
and  are  obviously  based  on  the  extracts  from  the  journal  of  travel. 
The  story  of  the  slave  girl,  "who  had  a  spirit  of  ventriloquism,"  gives  a 
vivid  impression  of  the  religious  and  social  environment  amid  which 
Paul  worked.  Evidently  the  girl  possessed  a  keen  mind,  like  many 
of  the  slaves  to  be  found  during  that  period  throughout  the  broad 
bounds  of  the  Roman  Empire,  for  her  success  in  predicting  the  future 
of  those  who  appealed  to  her  for  a  divine  response  was  clearly  due  to 
her  power  of  insight  and  inventive  genius.  Her  attitude  toward  Paul 
and  his  fellow  workers  indicates  that  she  appreciated  the  truth  of 
their  teaching  and  that  she  was  apparently  eager  to  help  them.  Her 
words  and  deeds,  as  reported,  are  a  public  confession  of  faith  in  their 
teaching.  Paul,  however,  was  evidently  annoyed  by  the  fact  that 
that  confession  seemed  to  come  through  the  medium  of  heathen 
divination.  His  words  to  her  were  therefore  of  the  nature  both  of  a 
command  and  of  a  rebuke.  They  produced  the  desired  result.  Evi- 
dently she  had  hitherto  believed  in  her  miraculous  powers;  but  now 
Paul's  words  through  suggestion  had  acted  as  an  inhibition.  There- 
fore she  could  not  go  on  as  formerly.  Her  silence  is  possibly  an  index 
that  she  accepted  the  apostle's  teaching.  That  Paul  believed  that  she 
was  possessed  of  an  unclean  spirit  cannot  be  doubted  in  the  light  of 
his  assertion  in  I  Corinthians  1020.  The  terms  in  which  he  addressed 
her  recall  Jesus'  rebuke  to  the  man  possessed  of  an  unclean  spirit  in 
the  synagogue  at  Capernaum  (Mark  225).  Furthermore,  that  Paul 
believed  that  he  had  performed  a  miracle  cannot  be  doubted,  for  he 
plainly  asserts  his  conviction  that  he  possessed  this  power  in  II  Co- 
rinthians 1212.  The  slave  girl's  masters,  in  their  mad  frenzy,  at  first 
succeeded  in  playing  on  the  prejudices  of  the  Roman  rulers  of  Philippi. 
Hatred  of  everything  Jewish  was  then  common  throughout  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  Philippi  was  especially  jealous  of  its  Roman  citizenship. 
Paul's  personal  appearance  may  have  also  aroused  this  race  antago- 
nism.   Soon  the  city  mob  was  seized  with  the  same  fanatical  frenzy. 

115 


PAUL'S  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

In  these  circumstances  it  was  futile  for  Paul  to  urge  in  defense  his 
Roman  citizenship.  Without  waiting  for  the  formality  of  a  judicial 
trial,  the  praetors  gave  the  cruel  command  to  flog  him  and  his  associ- 
ates. While  Paul  does  not  refer  to  this  experience  in  his  later  letter 
to  the  Philippians,  he  does  declare  in  II  Corinthians  ll25  that  he  was 
"thrice  beaten  with  rods,"  indicating  that  on  two  other  occasions  his 
Roman  citizenship  was  not  sufficient  to  deliver  him  from  this  horrible 
indignity. 

It  is  possible  that  the  account  of  the  imprisonment  of  Paul  and  Silas 
has  been  influenced  by  the  late  tradition  of  Peter's  imprisonment  found 
in  Acts  517"42.  The  present  narrative,  however,  does  not  claim  that  the 
disciples  were  supernaturally  liberated  but  simply  states  that  a  violent 
earthquake  shook  the  very  foundations  of  the  prison,  loosening  the 
bars  from  the  prison  doors  and  the  chains  which  bound  the  prisoners. 
In  view  of  the  insecure  construction  of  prisons  in  this  part  of  the 
world  even  to-day  the  phenomena  described  are  not  without  analogies. 
Paul's  action  in  this  crisis  is  characteristic.  As  later,  when  ship- 
wrecked, the  prisoner  suddenly  becomes  the  master  of  the  situation. 
Out  of  sheer  admiration  and  gratitude  the  jailer,  who  doubtless  had 
previously  heard  Paul's  preaching  and  been  impressed  by  his  personality, 
voiced  spontaneously  the  need  and  the  belief  that  was  already  ger- 
minating within  him.  Paul  throughout  all  his  ministry  revealed  a 
marvellous  adaptability  to  every  change  of  circumstance.  Dramatic 
indeed  is  the  picture  of  his  preaching  in  the  darkness  of  the  earth- 
quake-shaken prison  to  the  frightened  jailer  and  his  prisoners.  Pos- 
sibly the  earthquake  was  effectual  in  restoring  the  judicial  prudence  of 
the  Roman  praetors,  for  at  dawn  they  sent  the  command  to  loose  the 
prisoners  whom  they  had  so  unjustly  treated.  Thus  it  is  that  Paul 
was  able  to  gain  a  hearing  for  his  assertion  that  he  and  Silas  were 
Roman  citizens,  with  the  result  that  the  Philippian  judges  came  in 
person  to  beg  their  prisoners  to  leave  the  town  and  that  they  were 
thankful  thus  to  escape  the  consequences  of  their  rash  action. 

Paul  left  behind  him  at  Philippi  a  small  but  exceedingly  devoted 
band  of  Christians  that  during  the  rest  of  his  life  was  an  unceasing 
source  of  joy  to  him.  Their  personal  devotion  to  him  was  most  marked. 
At  least  twice  they  sent  funds  for  the  support  of  his  work  at  Thes- 
salonica  (Phil.  416);  again  at  Corinth  he  was  cheered  by  their  gifts 
(II  Cor.  II10);  and  the  one  supreme  love-letter  that  comes  down  to 
us  from  his  lips  was  prompted  by  a  similar  evidence  of  their  affection 
when  he  was  a  prisoner,  facing  death  at  Rome  (Phil.  410« 18). 

116 


FOUNDING  THE  CHURCH  AT  THESSALONICA 

IV.  The  Founding  of  the  Church  at  Thessalonica.  Paul 
left  Philippi,  not  as  a  fugitive,  but  at  the  request  of  the  magistrates. 
His  plan  of  campaign  is  again  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  he  passed 
by  the  smaller  cities  of  Amphipolis  and  Apollonia  and  went  directly 
to  Thessalonica,  the  metropolis  of  Macedonia.  It  was  majestically 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  Theramic  Gulf  in  a  great  natural  ampi- 
theatre  and  looked  southeastward  toward  the  iEgean  Sea.  Here  the 
Egnatian  Way  met  the  highways  of  commerce  that  radiated  from  the 
northern  iEgean  through  the  rich  plains  to  the  north.  Commercially 
and  strategically  it  resembled  Corinth  in  many  ways.  It  was  a  free 
Greek  city,  ruled  by  politarchs  and  proud  of  its  independence  and 
prestige.  The  opportunities  of  trade  had  attracted  here  a  strong  Jew- 
ish colony.    The  Jewish  faith  had  also  won  many  Greek  proselytes. 

As  usual,  the  author  of  Acts  emphasizes  Paul's  public  preaching, 
especially  in  the  Jewish  synagogue.  Fortunately  in  Paul's  letters  to 
the  Christians  of  Thessalonica  he  has  given  vivid  pictures  of  his  work 
and  experiences  there.  He  found  living  in  this  great  commercial  city 
expensive.  Night  and  day  he  worked  at  his  trade  of  tent-making, 
while  he  told  his  fellow  workmen  about  Jesus  (I  Thess.  29).  The  ma- 
jority of  the  converts  were  from  the  poorer  classes  (II  Cor.  82).  Most 
of  them  were  Greeks,  for  he  states  that  his  chief  task  was  to  turn  them 
from  idols  to  the  service  of  the  living  and  real  God  and  to  prepare  them 
for  the  coming  of  his  son  Jesus,  who  would  deliver  them  from  the 
wrath  that  threatened  (I  Thess.  I9, 10).  The  idea  of  the  parousia  or 
coming  of  Antiochus  or  of  Augustus  or  of  a  god  was  familiar  to  the 
devout  Greeks,  as  we  now  know  from  many  contemporary  inscrip- 
tions. Eagerly  they  entered  into  the  expectation  of  a  speedy  coming 
of  the  divine  king  whom  Paul  proclaimed.  Indeed,  as  the  event  proved, 
they  were  too  eager,  for  their  expectations  in  time  affected  unfavorably 
their  ordinary  activity  (II  Thess.  2). 

Paul's  teaching  regarding  the  coming  of  Jesus  was  apparently  also 
the  basis  of  the  charge  which  the  Jews  preferred  against  him  and 
Silas.  While  Paul  does  not  directly  refer  to  it  in  his  letters,  this  is 
probably  the  reason  for  his  reference  to  the  Jews  as  those  "who  offend 
God  and  oppose  all  men  by  hindering  us  from  speaking  words  of  sal- 
vation to  the  Gentiles"  (I  Thess.  216).  Here,  as  at  Philippi,  Paul's 
assailants  did  not  trust  to  a  fair  judicial  trial  but  aroused  the  mob  to 
support  their  indefinite  charge.  Warned  by  previous  experience,  Paul 
and  Silas  had  found  refuge  in  concealment.  Jason,  at  whose  house 
they  had  been  received,  and  certain  others  of  the  Christian  converts 

117 


PAUL'S  WORK  IN  MACEDONIA 

resident  at  Thessalonica  were  dragged  before  the  politarchs  on  the 
hysterical  charge  of  having  entertained  "these  upsetters  of  the  whole 
world"  who  were  treasonably  proclaiming  that  not  Augustus  but  Jesus 
was  king.  The  charge  is  an  echo  of  that  which  was  brought  by  the 
Jewish  high  priests  against  Jesus  himself.  Although  the  rulers  of 
Thessalonica  were  especially  sensitive  to  a  charge  of  this  kind,  they 
evidently  recognized  its  absurdity  and  simply  put  Jason  and  his  as- 
sociates under  bond  to  keep  the  peace.  The  incident,  however,  marked 
the  end  of  the  personal  work  of  Paul  and  Silas  at  Thessalonica.  Even 
though  their  sojourn  there  had  been  limited  to  a  few  months,  Paul 
emphatically  declared:  "Our  visit  to  you  was  no  failure"  (I  Thess.  21). 
The  foundations  were  laid  for  a  strong,  democratic,  loyal  Christian 
church,  which  was  one  of  the  crowns  of  his  missionary  activity. 

V.  Paul's  Work  at  Bercea.  The  public  attack  upon  Paul  and 
Silas  led  the  Christian  brothers  to  send  them  off  by  night  to  Bercea, 
fifty  miles  southwest  of  Thessalonica.  This  secluded  Greek  town  was 
on  the  western  side  of  a  fertile  plain  that  extended  eastward  to  the 
iEgean  Sea.  It  was  flanked  on  the  west  by  Mount  Bermius,  from 
whence  came  cool,  flowing  streams  to  water  the  groves  and  fields  that 
encircled  it.  It  proved  a  quiet  haven  of  refuge  for  the  apostles.  While 
Paul  would  naturally  have  chosen  a  more  important  centre,  he  again 
illustrated  his  zeal  and  marvellous  adaptability.  In  a  short  time  he 
gathered  about  him  an  earnest  band  of  Christian  believers.  The 
narrative  of  Acts  states  that  he  found  here  a  better  class  of  Jews  than 
at  the  great  commercial  city  of  Thessalonica.  It  also  states  that  his 
method  was  not  so  much  that  of  public  preaching  as  teaching.  Here, 
as  at  Philippi  and  Thessalonica,  he  was  doubtless  working  out  with  his 
fellow  converts  the  doctrines  that  he  later  incorporates  in  his  letters 
to  the  Corinthians  and  Romans.  The  majority  of  the  Christian  con- 
verts at  Bercea  were  evidently  Greeks,  and  numbered  many  prominent 
men  and  women.  This  is  implied  by  the  narrative  of  Acts  and  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  Sopater,  the  son  of  Pyrrhus,  clearly  a  Greek, 
was  the  representative  of  this  church,  who  later  accompanied  Paul  to 
Jerusalem  (Acts  204). 

VI.  The  Results  of  Paul's  Work  in  Macedonia.  The  chrono- 
logical data  in  Acts  are  at  this  point  indefinite,  but  it  is  probable  that 
Paul's  missionary  campaign  in  Macedonia  did  not  extend  over  more 
than  a  year.  It  represented  days  and  weeks  of  intense  physical  and 
religious  work.  Much  of  it  was  done  in  the  face  of  strong  opposition; 
but  on  the  whole  it  was  for  him  a  period  of  great  joy  and  exaltation. 

118 


THE  RESULT  OF  PAUL'S  WORK 

Here  at  last  he  demonstrated  beyond  all  question  the  adaptability  of 
the  Gospel  of  and  about  Jesus  to  the  purely  Greek  world.  He  must 
also  have  been  profoundly  impressed  at  this  time  by  the  readiness  of 
the  Gentiles  for  that  new  religion.  Christianity  was  no  longer  the 
faith  of  a  little  Palestinian  sect,  but  was  rapidly  becoming  a  universal 
world  religion.  At  this  time  Paul  also  succeeded  in  planting  the  leaven 
of  Christianity  in  two  of  the  most  important  cities  of  southern  Europe, 
which  lay  on  the  main  highway  that  led  directly  to  Rome.  The 
Jewish  element  in  these  Macedonian  churches  appears  to  have  been 
insignificant.  Jason  (the  Greek  form  of  Joshua  and  Jesus)  of  Thes- 
salonica  is  the  only  distinctively  Jewish  name  that  appears  in  the 
record.  Otherwise  the  relatively  long  list  of  converts  mentioned  in 
Acts  and  in  Paul's  letters  all  bear  unmistakably  Greek  names.  Dur- 
ing his  work  in  Macedonia  Paul  succeeded  in  establishing  especially 
strong  personal  relations  with  the  individual  converts.  As  he  faced 
new  and  more  difficult  fields,  their  love  and  warm  friendship,  as  well 
as  help,  were  his  constant  inspiration.  During  this  period  also  he  was 
training  an  efficient  body  of  assistants.  With  the  exception  of  Timothy 
they  appear  to  have  all  been  enlisted  from  this  new  field.  We  know 
the  names  of  at  least  four  who  were  native  Macedonians:  Sopater, 
Aristarchus,  Secundus,  and  Gaius  (Acts  1929,  204).  To  this  list  should 
perhaps  be  added  the  name  of  Luke.  In  Paul's  later  letter  to  the 
Philippians  he  mentions  two  women  and  three  other  men  who  were 
his  active  co-workers.  In  Macedonia  Paul  also  realized  in  fullest 
measure  his  purpose  to  make  each  new  Christian  community  the  basis 
for  the  extension  of  the  Gospel  to  other  centres.  Apparently  in  no 
other  field  did  he  succeed  so  well  in  implanting  his  intense  missionary 
spirit.  Until  the  very  end  of  his  life  gifts  to  the  "saints"  in  Jerusalem 
and  to  Paul  himself  were  sent  forth  by  the  poor  Christians  of  Mace- 
donia whom  he  had  helped  so  effectually. 

§  CLV.    PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  CHRISTIANS  AT 
THESSALONICA 

Paul,  Silas  and  Timothy  to  the  Church  of  the  Thes-  saiu- 
salonians  in  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ:  (ftion 
grace  and  peace  to  you.  Thess. 

We  always  thank  God  for  you  all  when  we  make  men- 
tion  of  you  in  our  prayers.  We  never  fail  to  remember 
your  works  of  faith  and  labor  of  love  and  steadfast  hope 

119 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

Pauls    in  our  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  before  our  God  and  Father. 
fJJie"     O  brothers,  beloved  by  God,  we  know  that  he  hath  chosen 
fideilf    y°u#    ^or  our  S0SPel  came  to  you  not  with  mere  words  but 
of  the7  with  power  and  with  the  Holy  Spirit  and  with  great  con- 
■JSg!"     viction.    For  you  know  what  sort  of  men  we  were  among 
SJf     vou  *or  vour  sa^es'    And  y°u  are  imitators  of  the  examples 
set  by  us  and  by  the  Lord,  receiving  the  word  amidst  great 
affliction,  with  joy  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit.    Thus  you 
became  a  pattern  to  all  the  believers  in  Macedonia  and 
Achaia;  for  the  word  of  God  has  resounded  from  you  not 
only  through  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  but  your  faith  in  God 
has  reached  every  place,  so  that  we  have  no  need  to  speak 
about  it.    People  tell  us  of  their  own  accord  how  we  were 
received  by  you  and  how  you  turned  to  God  from  idols  to 
serve  a  living  and  real  God  and  to  await  the  coming  of  his 
Son  from  heaven,  whom  he  raised  from  the  dead,  Jesus  who 
rescues  us  from  the  wrath  to  come. 
The  For  you  yourselves  know,  brothers,  that  our  visit  to  you 

g^L1*  was  not  a  failure.  But,  as  you  know,  although  at  Philippi 
con-  we  had  been  ill-treated  and  outraged,  we  took  courage  in  our 
oFtne  God  to  tell  you  the  gospel  of  God  under  great  strain.  For 
SeS8"  our  aPPeal  does  not  spring  from  any  delusion,  nor  from  an 
(2i-i2)  unclean  motive,  nor  is  there  any  fraud  in  it.  Rather  we 
have  been  tested  by  God  that  we  may  be  intrusted  with 
the  gospel.  Therefore,  we  speak  not  to  please  men,  but 
God  who  tests  our  hearts;  for  as  you  well  know  we  have 
never  resorted  to  flattery  nor  to  any  pretext  for  self  seeking. 
God  is  witness;  we  never  sought  honor  from  men,  from 
you,  nor  from  any  others,  though  as  apostles  of  Christ  we 
might  have  claimed  authority.  On  the  contrary,  while  we 
were  among  you  we  were  as  gentle  as  a  mother,  nursing  her 
own  children.  Since  we  were  thus  drawn  to  you  by  affec- 
tion, we  would  gladly  have  imparted  to  you  not  only  the  gos- 
pel of  God,  but  have  given  our  very  lives  also,  for  you  have 
become  very  dear  to  us.  Brothers,  you  remember  our  hard 
labor  and  toil,  how  we  worked  at  our  trade  night  and  day 
so  as  not  to  become  a  burden  to  any  of  you,  while  we  preached 
the  gospel  of  God  to  you.  You  are  witnesses  and  so  is 
God  how  pious  and  upright  and  blameless  we  acted  toward 
each  one  of  you,  even  as  a  father  toward  his  own  chil- 

120 


THE  SPIRIT  AND  CONDUCT  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

dren,  beseeching  you,  encouraging  you,  and  charging  you 
to  live  lives  worthy  of  the  God  who  calleth  you  to  share  his 
own  kingdom  in  glory. 

And  for  this  we  also  thank  God  unceasingly,  that  when  The 
you  received  God's  message  from  us,  you  embraced  it,  not  |£?of 
as  a  human  word,  but  for  what  it  really  is,  the  word  of  God,  J*e 
which  also  works  in  the  hearts  of  you  who  believe.    For  saio- 
you,  brothers,  have  followed  the  examples  of  the  churches  {JJf^ 
of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  in  Judea  in  that  you  have  p«g»^ 
suffered  from  your  fellow  countrymen  just  as  those  churches  p»-«) 
have  suffered  from  the  Jews  who  killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and 
the  prophets.    Your  countrymen  now  persecute  us  and  are 
not  pleasing  God,  but  oppose  all  men  by  preventing  us  from 
preaching  to  the  Gentiles  that  they  may  be  saved.    Thus 
they  continually  fill  up  the  measure  of  their  own  sins;  but 
the  wrath  has  come  upon  them  at  last ! 

Brothers,  when  we  were  separated  from  you  for  a  little  Paul's 
time  (out  of  sight,  not  out  of  mind!),  we  were  the  more  in-  l°J^- 
tently  eager  to  see  you,  for  we  did  want  to  come  to  you — I  tu<ie 
did,  I,  Paul,  more  than  once — but  Satan  hindered  us.    For 
who  is  *  our  hope,  our  joy,  our  crown '  of  which  we  boast? 
Is  it  not  you  yourselves  in  the  presence  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
at  his  coming?  Yes,  you  are  our  glory  and  joy! 

So  when  I  could  bear  it  no  longer,  I  decided  to  remain  The 
behind  at  Athens  alone,  and  I  sent  Timothy,  our  brother  ^d'{ 
and  minister  of  God  in  proclaiming  the  gospel  of  Christ,  for  Tim- 
your  strengthening  and  encouragement  in  the  faith  that  (31*) 
none  of  you  might  be  disturbed  by  these  present  troubles; 
for  you  yourselves  know  that  they  are  our  appointed  lot. 
And  this  is  so,  for  even  when  we  were  with  you,  we  fore- 
warned you,  saying  that,  *  We  are  soon  to  suffer  affliction,* 
and  so  it  proved  as  you  know.    I  on  this  account,  being  un- 
able to  bear  it  any  longer,  sent  to  find  out  about  your  faith, 
lest  perchance  the  tempter  had  tempted  you  and  our  labor 
had  been  lost. 

But  now  that  Timothy  has  just  come  back  to  us  from  you  Tim- 
and  has  brought  us  the  good  news  of  your  faith  and  love  £e£ort 
and  how  you  always  remember  me  affectionately,  longing  <•-■) 
to  see  us,  as  we  also  long  to  see  you,  we  have  been  com- 
forted about  you,  brothers,  in  all  our  distress  and  trouble 

121 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

because  of  your  faith.    For  now  we  live  indeed,  if  you  but 
stand  firm  in  the  Lord. 
Paul's        How  can  we  give  thanks  enough  to  God  for  you  in  return 
§5e~     for  all  the  joy  which  we  experience  because  of  you  in  the 
and       presence  of  our  God?    Night  and  day  we  pray  most  ear- 
fOTthe    nestly  that  we  may  see  your  faces  and  supply  whatever  is 
22jSf"     lacking  in  your  faith.    May  our  God  and  Father  and  our 
nians     Lord  Jesus  direct  our  way  to  you,  and  may  the  Lord  make 
you  increase  and  excel  in  love  to  one  another  and  to  all 
men,  even  as  is  our  love  toward  you,  so  as  to  strengthen 
your  hearts  and  make  them  blameless  in  holiness  before 
our  God  and  Father  at  the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  with 
all  his  holy  ones. 
The  Finally,  brothers,  we  beg  and  beseech  you  in  the  Lord 

andal  Jesus  to  follow  our  instructions  about  the  way  you  ought  to 
otSlga-  ^ve  "*•  or&er  to  please  God.  You  are  indeed  leading  that 
tions  life,  but  I  write  that  you  may  excel  in  it  still  more.  For 
ch5£  you  know  the  commands  we  laid  upon  you  on  the  authority 
(4^2)  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  For  it  is  God's  will  that  you  should  be 
pure,  that  you  abstain  from  sexual  vice,  that  each  of  you 
learn  to  take  for  himself  a  wife,  who  shall  be  his  own,  in 
purity  and  honor,  not  to  gratify  sexual  passion  as  do  the 
Gentiles  who  have  no  knowledge  of  God;  and  that  in  this 
matter  there  be  no  encroaching  on  or  over-reaching  the 
rights  of  his  brother,  for  the  Lord  avengeth  all  these  sins, 
as  we  have  already  taught  you  and  soundly  warned  you. 
For  God  did  not  call  us  to  an  unclean  but  to  a  pure  life. 
Therefore,  he  who  disregards  this  disregards  not  man  but 
the  God  who  gave  you  his  Holy  Spirit.  There  is  no  need 
that  I  should  write  you  in  regard  to  brotherly  love,  for  you 
yourselves  are  taught  by  God  to  love  one  another,  as  in- 
deed, is  your  practice  toward  all  the  brothers  in  all  of  Mace- 
donia. We  beseech  you,  brothers,  to  excel  in  this  more  and 
more  and  to  endeavor  to  live  peacefully,  to  attend  to  your 
own  business,  and,  as  we  charged  you,  work  with  your  own 
hands,  so  that  you  may  live  worthy  lives  in  your  relations 
to  those  about,  and  not  be  a  burden  to  anyone. 

We  do  not  wish  you  to  be  ignorant,  brothers,  regarding 
those  who  sleep  the  sleep  of  death,  lest  you  should  mourn 
as  others  do  who  have  no  hope,  for  if  we  believe  that  Jesus 

122 


THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  FAITHFUI/ 

died  and  rose  again,  we  also  believe  that  God  by  means  of  The^ 
Jesus  will  bring  with  him  those  who  have  fallen  asleep,  for  f^ture 
we  tell  you,  as  on  the  Lord's  own  authority,  that  we  who  are  those 
alive  and  survive  until  the  Lord  comes  will  by  no  means  Save 
take  precedence  of  those  who  have  fallen  asleep.    The  S|din 
Lord  himself  will  descend  from  heaven  with  a  shout,  with  faith 
the  voice  of  an  archangel  and  with  the  trumpet  of  God. 
Then  the  dead  in  Christ  will  rise  first,  afterwards  we  who 
are  alive  and  survive  will  be  caught  up  along  with  them  in 
the  clouds  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air,  and  so  we  will  be 
with  the  Lord  forever.    Therefore  encourage  one  another 
with  these  words. 

But  as  to  times  and  dates,  brothers,  it  is  unnecessary  The 
that  anything  be  written  to  you.  For  you  know  perfectly  conSfg 
well  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  comes  as  a  thief  in  the  night.  (51 5) 
When  men  are  saying,  Peace  and  safety,  then  all  of  a  sud- 
den destruction  is  upon  them,  like  birth  pangs  on  a  preg- 
nant woman,  and  escape  there  is  none.  But  you,  brothers, 
are  not  in  darkness  that  the  day  should  surprise  you  like 
a  thief.  You  are  all  sons  of  the  light  and  sons  of  the  day. 
We  do  not  belong  to  the  night  nor  the  darkness.  So  then 
let  us  not  sleep  like  the  rest  of  men,  but  let  us  keep  awake 
and  be  sober;  for  sleepers  sleep  by  night,  while  drunkards 
drink  at  night.  But  we  who  belong  to  the  day  must  be 
sober,  clad  in  faith  and  love  as  our  coat  of  mail  and  the 
hope  of  salvation  as  our  helmet.  For  God  destined  us  not 
for  wrath  but  to  attain  salvation  through  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  died  for  us  that  waking  or  sleeping  in  death 
we  should  live  together  with  him.  Therefore  encourage 
one  another  and  let  each  edify  the  other,  as  indeed  you  are 
doing. 

Brothers,  we  beg  you  to  show  respect  for  those  who  are  con: 
laboring  among  you  and  are  your  leaders  in  the  Lord  and  eSSf-s 
advise  you.    Hold  them  in  special  esteem  and  love  on  ac-  tation 
count  of  the  work  they  are  doing.    Be  at  peace  among 
yourselves.    We  beseech  you,  brothers,  admonish  the  un- 
ruly, comfort  the  faint-hearted,  sustain  the  weak,  be  pa- 
tient toward  all.    See  that  no  one  of  you  pays  back  evil 
for  evil,  but  always  seek  for  opportunities  of  doing  good  to 
one  another  and  to  all  men.    Rejoice  at  all  times,  pray 

123 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

unceasingly.    In  every  circumstance  be  thankful,  for  this 
is   God's  will  in  Christ  Jesus  respecting  you.    Do  not 
quench  the  Spirit,  do  not  disdain  prophetic  utterances,  but 
test  them  all,  retain  what  is  good;  abstain  from  every  form 
of  evil. 
May  the  God  of  peace  entirely  consecrate  you.    May 
diction   you  be  kept  spirit,  soul,  and  body,  complete  and  blameless 
losing   until  the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.    He  who  calls 
tfoS^   you  is  faithful  and  he  will  do  it.    Brothers,  pray  for  us. 
(2J.28)      saiute  an  the  brothers  with  a  holy  kiss.    I  solemnly  charge 
you  by  the  Lord  to  have  this  letter  read  aloud  to  all  the 
brothers. 
The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you. 

super-  Paul,  Silas  and  Timothy  to  the  church  of  the  Thes- 
Sonof  salonians  in  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
Pauls    Grace  and  peace  to  you  from  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord 

second      •_  x**^     •    ■ 

letter     Jesus  Christ. 

Thess.       We  are  bound  unceasingly  to  thank  God  for  you,  brothers ; 
111 2)      it  is  appropriate  that  we  should  because  your  faith  is  grow- 
Pauis    ing  greatly  and  the  love  of  each  of  you  for  all  the  others 
tude"     *s  increasing.    The  result  is  that  throughout  the  churches 
(w)       of  God  we  are  proud  of  you,  because  of  your  steadfastness 
and  faith  amidst  all  the  persecutions  and  troubles  which 
you  are  enduring.    They  are  plain  proof  of  God's  justice; 
you  are  suffering  for  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  he  means 
to  make  you  worthy  of  it. 
The  As  regards  the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  our 

jesus9f  being  gathered  to  meet  him,  we  beg  you,  brothers,  not  to 
ggHjj1  let  your  minds  become  easily  unsettled  or  disturbed  by 
(2™g  any  spiritual  revelation,  or  any  declaration,  or  any  letter 
purporting  to  come  from  me  to  the  effect  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  now  here.  Let  no  one  in  any  way  deceive  you.  It  will 
not  come  until  the  great  act  of  apostasy  first  comes  and 
the  appearing  of  the  man  of  sin,  the  son  of  perdition,  the 
adversary  who  vaunts  himself  against  and  above  every  so- 
called  god  or  object  of  worship  so  that  he  seats  himself  in 
the  very  temple  of  God,  proclaiming  himself  to  be  God.  Do 
you  not  remember  that  I  used  to  tell  you  these  things  when 
I  was  still  with  you  ?    Therefore,  you  now  know  what  re- 

124 


(3i-6) 


JESUS*  SECOND  COMING 

strained  him  from  being  revealed  before  his  appointed  time. 
For  the  secret  force  of  lawlessness  is  already  at  work,  only 
it  cannot  be  revealed  until  he  who  restrains  it  is  removed. 

Finally,  brothers,  pray  for  us  that  the  word  of  God  may  Pauls 
spread  rapidly  and  be  glorified,  as  in  your  own  case,  and  f^uest 
that  we  may  be  delivered  from  unreasonable  and  evil  men,  P™yer 
for  the  faith  is  not  shared  by  all.    But  the  Lord  is  faithful; 
he  will  surely  strengthen  you  and  guard  you  from  the  evil 
one.    Now,  we  have  confidence  in  you  in  the  Lord  that  you 
are  doing  and  will  do  what  we  command.    May  the  Lord 
direct  your  hearts  in  the  love  of  God  and  the  patience  of 
Christ. 

We  command  you,  brothers,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  The 
Jesus  Christ  to  shun  any  brother  who  is  an  idler  and  not  {S^Vf 
living  according  to  the  teaching  which  he  received  from  us.  <f£gg: 
For  you  yourselves  know  that  it  is  your  duty  to  follow  our  wSrk 
example ;  we  did  not  act  disorderly  in  your  midst  nor  did  we  2natly 
eat  any  one's  bread  without  paying  for  it.    Rather  we  la-  {j*Jfo- 
bored  and  toiled  hard  day  and  night  so  as  not  to  be  a  burden  (« -i*f 
to  any  of  you.    This  was  not  because  we  have  no  right;  it 
was  simply  that  we  might  give  you  an  example  that  you 
might  imitate  us.    For  even  while  we  were  with  you,  we  laid 
down  this  rule :  *  If  a  man  is  not  willing  to  work,  he  shall 
not  eat.'    But  we  hear  that  some  of  your  number  are  idlers 
and  mere  busy-bodies.    Now  by  the  authority  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  we  command  and  exhort  such  to  work  quietly  and 
eat  their  own  bread.    But  you  yourselves,  brothers,  must 
not  grow  weary  of  doing  what  is  right.    If  any  one  will  not 
obey  our  command  in  this  letter,  mark  that  man,  do  not 
associate  with  him  so  that  he  may  be  made  to  feel  ashamed. 
Do  not  regard  him  as  an  enemy,  caution  him  as  a  brother. 

May  the  Lord  of  peace  himself,  continually  grant  you  Fare-, 
peace  in  every  sense.    The  Lord  be  with  you  all.    The  g^g. 
salutation  is  in  my  own  hand,  Paul's.    This  is  a  mark  in  fts 
every  letter.    This  is  how  I  write.    The  grace  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  be  with  you  all. 

I.    The    General    Structure    of    Paul's    Letters.    Deissmann 
(Light  From  the  Ancient  East,  pp.  218-221)  has  drawn  a  sharp  distinction 

125 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

between  a  letter  and  an  epistle.  Recent  excavations  have  disclosed 
many  examples  of  these  two  types  of  literature  and  have  thrown 
much  light  upon  the  literary  form  of  Paul's  writings.  The  epistle  was 
frequently  used  by  the  philosophers  and  teachers  of  the  period  to  set 
forth  their  doctrines.  These  were  essentially  essays  or  discourses 
set  in  the  epistolary  form.  Of  this  type  of  literature  Paul's  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  is  an  excellent  example.  Of  the  simple  letter  his  per- 
sonal note  to  Philemon  or  the  short  note  to  the  Ephesian  Christians, 
found  in  the  last  chapter  of  Romans,  are  good  illustrations.  It  is 
difficult,  however,  to  rigidly  classify  the  rest  of  Paul's  writings  either 
as  letters  or  epistles,  for  the  one  almost  insensibly  merges  into  the  other. 
It  is  clear,  however,  that  Paul's  epistles  grew  out  of  his  habit  of  making 
public  addresses  and  of  writing  personal  letters.  His  first  letter  to  the 
Thessalonians  illustrates  excellently  the  way  in  which  a  personal 
letter  naturally  developed  into  an  epistle.  With  the  exception  of  his 
letter  to  the  Galatians,  which  was  written  to  meet  an  imperative 
situation  and  under  the  influence  of  hot  indignation,  Paul's  letters  all 
possess  the  same  general  literary  structure.  They  open  with  the  salu- 
tation, giving  the  names  of  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed  and 
conclude  with  the  Greek  word  grace  and  the  equivalent  of  the  ancient 
Hebrew  word  peace.  It  probably  corresponds  to  the  blessing  which 
opened  every  Jewish  synagogue  service  and  suggests  the  correspond- 
ing order  in  the  early  Christian  service,  which  was  clearly  modelled 
after  the  Jewish.  The  salutation  was  followed  by  words  of  thanksgiv- 
ing and  of  commendation  of  the  virtues  of  those  whom  he  addressed 
and  a  prayer  that  these  might  continue.  Being  a  wise  teacher,  Paul 
appreciated  the  value  of  sincere  appreciation  as  a  premise,  even  to  the 
most  severe  condemnation.  The  third  element  in  his  letters  was  a 
statement  of  the  thesis  or  doctrine  which  he  wished  to  emphasize. 
This  represented  the  heart  of  each  epistle.  It  was  followed  in  turn  by 
practical  moral  applications  of  the  principle  stated  and  by  earnest 
exhortations.  When  Paul  wished  to  add  personal  notes  or  directions, 
these  were  introduced  at  this  point  and  the  letter  or  epistle  concluded 
with  a  benediction,  even  as  did  the  Jewish  synagogue  service.  Some- 
times Paul  places  greater  emphasis  on  the  doctrinal  teachings  and 
sometimes  on  the  direct  applications  and  exhortations,  but  with  prac- 
tically no  exceptions  each  epistle  contains  these  distinctive  elements 
and  in  the  same  general  order. 

II.    The    Literary    Characteristics    of    Paul's    Letters.     The 
contents,  as  well  as  his  frequent  statements,  leave  little  doubt  that 

126 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PAUL'S  LETTERS 

Paul  usually  dictated  his  letters.  It  is  fortunate  that  he  did  so,  for 
the  epistles  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  as  a  result  faithful  repre- 
sentations of  the  exact  way  in  which  he  talked  or  preached.  All 
that  is  lacking  are  his  intonations  and  gestures,  and  these  are  some- 
times implied  by  the  context.  It  is  possible  that  the  scribes  to  whom 
Paul  dictated  his  letters  were  masters  of  the  short-hand  system  of 
writing  which  was  well  known  at  this  period.  As  a  rule  the  dictation 
was  taken  down  on  waxed  tablets  in  a  cursive  script.  If  the  letter  was 
short,  the  wax  impression  was  sent.  If  it  were  long,  as  were  most  of 
Paul's  letters,  it  was  carefully  copied  on  rolls  of  papyrus.  In  one 
case  we  know  the  name  of  Paul's  scribe.  In  the  short  letter  to  the 
Christians  at  Ephesus,  which  is  now  found  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  of 
Romans,  we  find  this  postscript:  "I,  Tertius,  who  write  the  letter, 
salute  you  in  the  Lord/' 

It  has  been  suggested  that  Paul,  coming  from  the  ranks  of  the 
laboring  class,  was  not  himself  a  fluent  writer  and  that  he  avoided  when- 
ever possible  the  mechanical  work  of  writing.  The  postscript  to  II 
Thessalonians  ends  with  the  statement:  "The  salutation  is  in  my  own 
hand,  Paul's.  That  is  a  mark  in  every  letter  of  mine.  This  is  how  I 
write.  Let  the  grace  of  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you  all."  It  implies  that 
he  never  added  more  than  a  line  or  two  and  this  simply  for  the  pur- 
pose of  confirming  the  genuineness  of  his  letters.  His  literary  style 
reveals  at  points  the  results  of  his  habit  of  dictating,  for  evidently  the 
ideas  often  followed  each  other  so  rapidly  that  the  amanuensis  had 
difficulty  in  transcribing  them.  This  characteristic  is  especially  marked 
in  his  passionate  epistle  to  the  Galatians  (26-10).  Like  Jesus,  he  was 
fond  of  striking  paradoxes,  as  for  example:  "When  I  am  weak,  then  am 
I  strong."  Many  passages  in  his  epistles  are  characterized  by  certain 
rhythmical  accents  and  balanced  syllables  which  are  clearer  in  Greek, 
yet  apparent  even  in  an  English  translation.  Thus,  for  example,  in  I 
Corinthians  1522'  M  we  read:  "And  so  it  is  with  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead: 

It  is  sown  corruptible, 

It  rises  incorruptible; 

It  is  sown  inglorious, 

It  rises  in  glory; 

It  is  sown  in  weakness, 

It  rises  in  power; 

It  is  sown  an  animate  body, 

It  rises  a  spiritual  body." 
127 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

Paul  was  also  a  master  of  the  rhetorical  climax,  as  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  classical  passage,  I  Corinthians  1660"54.  In  this  respect  there  is 
a  striking  contrast  between  Paul  the  cosmopolitan,  with  his  varied 
culture,  acquainted  with  the  complex  life  of  the  city,  and  Jesus  the 
peasant,  a  keen  lover  of  nature,  reared  amidst  the  simple  life  of  Pales- 
tine. Jesus'  literary  style  is  simple,  direct,  and  limpid;  Paul's  is 
complex,  often  involved,  and  in  some  cases  even  turgid.  Jesus  drew 
most  of  his  illustrations  from  the  life  of  the  country;  Paul  from  the 
teeming  life  of  the  city.  Both,  however,  revealed  the  powerful  influ- 
ence of  the  earlier  wisdom  teachers  of  their  race  and  both  employed 
the  epigrammatic  method  in  presenting  their  teachings.  Thus,  for 
example,  in  I  Corinthians  36  Paul  declares: 

I  planted,  Apollos  watered, 

But  God  made  the  seed  grow; 

So  neither  planter  nor  the  waterer  is  important, 

But  God  who  maketh  the  seed  grow. 

The  Old  Testament  which  Paul  used  was  the  Septuagint  or  Greek 
translation.  To  him  all  written  therein  was  practically  of  equal 
authority.  Like  the  Jewish  rabbis  of  his  day  and  most  of  the  early 
Christian  teachers,  he  employed  at  times  the  literalistic  and  allegoriz- 
ing methods  in  interpreting  these  older  scriptures.  Freely  he  used 
whatever  seemed  to  be  adapted  to  the  point  which  he  was  endeavoring 
to  prove.  As  a  result  his  logic  often  depended  upon  the  superficial 
rather  than  the  fundamental  meaning  of  the  earlier  biblical  passages. 
His  method  of  reasoning  is  intuitive  rather  than  logical.  His  literary 
style  is  that  of  a  religious  mystic  rather  than  that  of  the  cold,  dogmatic 
theologian.  It  appeals  primarily  to  the  heart  rather  than  to  the  reason. 
It  is  also  suffused  with  a  brilliant,  glowing  imagination  and  profound 
emotion.  It  is  inspired  by  the  wide  experiences  and  the  deep  feelings 
of  the  great  apostle.  Through  it  all  one  feels  his  intense  zeal,  his 
kinetic  personality,  his  heroic  devotion,  and  his  warm  love  for  his 
fellow  men.  The  famous  hymn  to  love  in  I  Corinthians  13  is  beyond 
question  the  crown  of  Paul's  literary  efforts.  Of  it  the  classical  Greek 
scholar  von  Norden  has  said:  "Since  the  hymn  of  Cleanthes  nothing  at 
once  so  heartfelt  and  magnificent  had  been  written  in  Greek."  The 
perennial  charm  of  Paul's  literary  style,  however,  is  not  his  logic  nor 
finished  literary  form  but  the  man  himself  and  the  heroic  devotion  to 
a  great  cause  which  are  revealed  in  every  sentence  which  comes  from 
his  lips. 

128 


THE  OCCASION  OF  PAUL'S  FIRST  LETTER 

III.  The  Occasion  of  Paul's  First  Letter  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians.  Paul  had  taken  temporary  refuge  in  Bercea  in  the  hope  that 
he  might  be  able  to  return  to  his  friends  and  converts  at  Thessalonica; 
but  developments  there  rendered  this  impossible.  Hence  he  turned 
southward,  first  to  Athens  and  then  to  Corinth,  from  which  he  watched 
intently  the  course  of  events  in  Thessalonica.  Great  was  his  relief, 
therefore,  when  Timothy  came  bringing  direct  news.  It  is  evident 
that  Timothy  also  brought  to  Paul  a  letter  from  the  Christians  at 
Thessalonica  and  that  the  wording  of  his  first  letter  to  them  is  largely 
determined  by  what  they  had  said  to  him.  Thus,  for  example,  in  I 
Thessalonians  213  he  replies,  "We  also  thank  God  constantly  for  you," 
implying  that  they  had  said  the  same  of  Paul  and  Silas.  His  state- 
ment, "You  are  our  glory  and  joy"  (in  219, 20)  probably  also  echoes  the 
protestations  of  the  loyal  Thessalonians  who  were  eager  to  repudiate 
the  position  taken  by  certain  of  their  number  who  had  openly  questioned 
Paul's  sincerity  on  account  of  his  failure  to  return  to  them.  The 
dramatic  way  in  which  Paul  repeatedly  emphasizes  and  develops  the 
idea  of  imitation  in  this  letter  (l6,  214;  cf.  II  Thess.  37"9)  strongly  sug- 
gests that  they  had  also  declared  their  determination  to  imitate  Paul 
in  bearing  the  troubles  that  were  overtaking  them.  Such  loyal  state- 
ments fully  explain  the  note  of  thanksgiving  and  mutual  confidence 
that  runs  through  Paul's  first  epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  and  which 
beyond  reasonable  doubt  is  the  earliest  of  his  extant  letters.  On  the 
whole,  the  report  which  Timothy  brought  to  Paul  was  favorable,  but 
there  were  some  in  the  church  at  Thessalonica  who  had  become  idle 
and  intemperate  (57)  and  had  shown  an  inclination  to  go  back  to  the 
worship  of  heathen  gods  (4s-5).  Paul,  therefore,  wrote  to  strengthen 
those  who  were  loyal,  to  warn  the  weak  and  wavering,  and  to  emphasize 
the  more  important  teachings  which  he  had  set  before  them  during 
his  initial  work  in  their  midst.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
in  this  first  epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  we  have  precisely  the  words 
which  Paul  would  have  spoken,  could  he  have  stood  in  person  in  the 
midst  of  his  Thessalonian  friends  and  converts. 

IV.  The  Contents  of  Paul's  First  Letter  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians. The  thought  of  this  letter  is  remarkably  clear.  It  is  evident 
throughout  that  Paul  is  dealing  with  definite  conditions  and  needs  in 
the  Christian  community  at  Thessalonica.  Hearty  commendation 
and  thanksgiving  are  expressed  in  l2-10.  In  declaring  that  the  faith 
of  the  Thessalonian  Christians  had  been  reported  throughout  the 
world,  Paul  was  using  justifiable  hyperbole.    It  was  the  Western 

129 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

Christian  world  which  he  clearly  had  in  mind.  In  213-313  he  ardently 
professes  his  love  for  them  and  his  eagerness  to  revisit  them  and  ex- 
plains why  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  do  so.  In  the  remainder  of  the 
letter  (41"12)  he  stresses  certain  of  his  earlier  teachings,  the  impor- 
tance of  which  he  more  fully  appreciates  in  the  light  of  the  information 
which  has  come  to  him.  As  occasionally  elsewhere  in  his  letters,  he 
speaks  on  the  basis  of  the  direct  authority  of  Jesus  (42).  It  is  sig- 
nificant that  where  Paul  stands  most  squarely  on  Jesus'  teachings  the 
social  note  is  strongest.  Chapter  41"12  is  an  important  supplement  to 
our  gospel  records,  for  it  ranks  in  date  and  authority  with  the  early 
collection  of  the  teachings  of  Jesus  attributed  by  tradition  to  the  Apostle 
Matthew.  The  teachings  here  present  the  lofty  standard  of  social 
morality  that  Jesus  held  up  before  his  followers.  It  does  not  teach 
asceticism  but  absolute  fidelity  to  the  marriage  relation.  It  demands 
still  more:  the  marriage  bond  was  not  to  be  made  an  excuse  for  grati- 
fying the  sensual  passion,  but  each  man  is  enjoined  to  treat  his  wife 
purely  and  honorably  as  a  divine  creation.  This  passage  is  a  luminous 
reflection  of  Jesus'  chivalrous  attitude  toward  the  weaker  and  more 
dependent  members  of  society  and  especially  toward  women.  The 
ideal  here  set  forth  is  as  important  and  certainly  as  valid  to-day  as 
when  Paul  contrasted  Jesus'  standard  with  the  gross  and  brutal  sen- 
suality of  the  contemporary  heathen  world.  Paid  also  emphasizes 
Jesus'  law  of  brotherly  love  and  each  man's  obligation  quietly  to  at- 
tend to  his  own  business  as  his  first  and  fundamental  contribution  to 
the  welfare  of  society.  r 

Paul  then  discusses  in  413-5n  the  much-debated  question  of  what 
would  become  of  those  who  died  before  Jesus'  second  coming  and  how 
soon  that  appearing  would  be.  In  415  he  quotes  Jesus  as  the  authority 
for  the  statement  that,  "we,  the  living,  who  survive  until  the  Lord 
comes  are  by  no  means  to  take  precedence  of  those  who  are  fallen 
asleep."  Nowhere  in  the  gospels  do  we  find  the  exact  basis  of  this 
statement.  Possibly  Paul  had  in  mind  Jesus'  declaration  that  "he 
who  loses  his  life  for  my  sake  and  the  gospel's  shall  find  it"  (Mark  835), 
or  perhaps  the  allusion  may  be  to  Jesus'  mild  rebuke  of  James  and  John, 
who  asked  to  have  the  first  place  in  the  coming  kingdom.  In  his 
general  teaching  regarding  Jesus'  second  coming,  Paul  clearly  reflects 
his  Jewish  inheritance  and  reiterates  the  current  apocalyptic  hopes 
which  are  found  in  the  contemporary  writings  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles, 
the  apocalypses  of  Enoch,  Baruch,  and  IV  Ezra.  In  his  two  letters 
to  the  Thessalonians,  Paul's  expression  of  his  belief  in  Jesus'  second 

130 


THE  CONTENTS  OF  I  THESSALONIANS 

coming  reaches  its  climax — in  fact,  II  Thessalonians  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  its  subsidence.  When  a  decade  later  Paul  finally  faced  death, 
he  spoke  not  of  Jesus'  coming,  but  of  his  going  to  Christ  (Phil.  I23). 

V.  The  Contents  and  Authenticity  of  II  Thessalonians. 
Paul's  second  letter  to  the  Thessalonians  is  little  more  than  an  ap- 
pendix to  I  Thessalonians.  It  has,  however,  all  the  characteristic 
divisions  of  a  typical  letter.  Chapter  1  contains  Paul's  words  of  greet- 
ing and  thanksgiving  for  the  steadfastness  of  the  Thessalonian  Chris- 
tians. In  21-12  he  aims  to  correct  certain  misunderstandings  regarding 
his  teaching  about  the  second  coming  of  Christ.  In  213"17  he  expresses 
his  strong  confidence  in  the  Thessalonians.  Chapter  31"15  consists  of 
concluding  exhortations,  and  316"18  contains  his  blessing,  personal 
autograph,  and  farewell.  Throughout  this  second  letter  he  repeats 
and  emphasizes  the  same  points  as  in  the  first.  The  parallelism  is 
so  close  that  many  scholars  have  regarded  II  Thessalonians  as  the 
work  of  another  hand.  The  mark  of  Paul's  style  and  thought  are, 
however,  indelibly  stamped  upon  it.  While  it  deals  with  the  same 
conditions  that  are  reflected  in  I  Thessalonians,  it  nevertheless  marks 
progress.  In  I  Thessalonians  Paul  had  poured  oil  on  the  fiercely  burn- 
ing expectation  of  Jesus'  speedy  coming.  Now  he  aims  to  hold  in  check 
that  over-ardent  hope.  In  so  doing  he  voices  certain  popular  beliefs 
which  clearly  antedate  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  70  a.d.  It 
is,  therefore,  far  easier  to  hold  that  they  came  from  the  lips  of  Paul 
than  from  the  pen  of  a  later  editor.  Paul  probably  wrote  his  second 
letter  to  the  Thessalonians  only  a  few  months  after  the  first.  In- 
timations had  evidently  come  to  him  that  his  first  letter  had  been  in 
part  misinterpreted  and  he  therefore  wrote  in  haste  in  order  to  correct 
the  false  inferences  which  had  been  drawn  from  it. 

VI.  Paul's  Aim  in  II  Thessalonians.  A  recent  writer  (Har- 
nack)  has  suggested  that  in  this  second  letter  Paul  had  especially  in 
mind  the  Jewish  Christians  in  Thessalonica.  They,  rather  than  the 
Gentile  Christians,  would  naturally  be  most  interested  in  the  apoca- 
lyptic hopes  which  in  their  origin  were  distinctly  Jewish  rather  than 
Greek.  Possibly  they  had  intimated  that  in  his  first  letter  Paul  had 
reflected  only  a  part  of  the  current  hopes  which  gathered  about  the 
doctrine  of  Jesus'  second  coming.  In  his  second  letter  he  adds  what 
was  a  constant  factor  in  Jewish  eschatology.  It  is  the  allusion  to  the 
arch-enemy  of  God,  the  Anti-Christ,  whose  activity  it  was  believed 
would  reach  its  climax  before  the  appearance  of  the  Christ  to  over- 
throw this  foe  and  to  establish  his  visible  kingdom  on  earth.     In  Paul's 

131 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS 

mind  the  one  who  still  held  in  restraint  the  secret  forces  of  lawless- 
ness was  evidently  Rome.  It  has  even  been  suggested  that  here  is  a 
play  on  the  name  of  the  then  reigning  emperor,  Claudius.  Evidently 
Rome  had  not  yet  assumed  in  the  minds  of  the  Christians  its  later 
role  of  the  Anti-Christ.  Nowhere  is  Paul's  good  sense  as  a  pastor 
and  leader  better  illustrated  than  in  this  second  epistle  to  the  Thes- 
salonians.  Like  every  progressive  Jew,  he  still  held,  as  firmly  as,  for 
example,  we  to-day  hold  the  theory  of  evolution,  that  the  Messiah's 
work  would  not  be  complete  until  he  established  a  visible  kingdom  on 
earth.  It  is  through  these  letters  of  Paul,  as  well  as  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Revelation,  that  the  old,  popular 
Jewish  apocalyptic  hopes  gained  such  a  firm  hold  on  Christianity  that 
they  constantly  crop  out  to-day,  not  only  in  the  cults  of  the  Millerites 
and  Second  Adventists,  but  even  in  the  earnest  exhortations  of  cer- 
tain of  our  most  popular  evangelists.  In  the  face,  however,  of  all  his 
Jewish  inheritance  and  firm  beliefs,  Paul  strove  in  his  second  letter 
to  the  Thessalonians  to  counteract  the  evil  effects  of  this  hope,  which, 
we  see,  was  a  mistaken  one,  and  to  deliver  the  church  from  the  perils 
which  threatened  it.  In  the  first  place,  he  called  their  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  present  situation  did  not  supply  all  the  conditions 
which  were  popularly  supposed  to  precede  the  advent  of  the  Messiah. 
In  the  second  place,  he  held  up  before  them  his  own  example  and  teach- 
ing, how  he  toiled  hard  at  his  trade,  working  night  and  day,  even 
though  he  shared  with  them  the  hope  of  Jesus'  early  reappearance. 
Finally,  he  enunciated  a  great  and  far-reaching  economic  law:  "If  a 
man  will  not  work,  he  shall  not  eat."  This  is  the  heart  of  Paul's 
social  philosophy,  and  it  is  one  of  his  great  contributions  to  the  science 
of  society.  It  is  even  more  striking,  because  it  was  set  forth  at  a 
moment  when  he  expected  even  in  his  own  lifetime  to  behold  the  end 
of  the  present  social  order.  Time  and  deeper  knowledge  have  demon- 
strated the  futility  of  the  old  Jewish  apocalyptic  hopes,  the  practical 
evils  of  which  Paul  himself  appreciated,  but  the  great  social  and 
economic  principle  which  he  laid  down  abides  awaiting  full  acceptance 
and  application. 

§CLVI.    PAUL'S  WORK  AT  ATHENS  AND   CORINTH 

While  Paul  was  waiting  at  Athens  for  Silas  and  Tim- 
othy, his  spirit  was  stirred  within  him  as  he  beheld  the 
idols  that  filled  the  city.    So  he  argued  in  the  synagogue 

132 


PAUL'S  DISCUSSIONS  WITH  THE  ATHENIANS 

with  the  Jews  and  the  devout  proselytes  and  also  in  the  Paul's 
market  place  daily  with  those  whom  he  happened  to  meet  cus- 
there.     Some  of  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  philosophers  also  ^Jgj1 
came  across  him  and  certain  of  them  said,  What  has  this  the 
worthless  picker-up  of  scraps  of  learning  to  say  ?    Others  iST 
said,  He  seems  to  be  a  herald  of  foreign  deities.    This  g^J* 
was   because   he    preached   Jesus   and   the    resurrection.   i7»-«) 
Then  taking  him  up  to  the  Areopagus  they  said,  May  we 
know  what  this  new  teaching  of  yours  is  ?    For  certain 
things  that  you  are  saying  sound  strange  to  us;  therefore, 
we  want  to  know  what  they  mean.     (For  all  the  Athenians 
and  the  foreign  visitors  to  Athens  spent  their  time  at  noth- 
ing else  than  telling  or  hearing  about  something  new.) 

So  Paul  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  Areopagus  said,  Paul's 
Men  of  Athens,  I  observe  that  in  every  respect  you  are  8J*the 
most  religious.  For  as  I  passed  along  and  saw  the  objects  j™gfe 
which  you  worship,  I  even  found  an  altar  with  the  in-  Areop- 

0/,  •„+,•   I,  agus 

scription,  (ja-31) 

TO   AN  UNKNOWN   GOD. 

Now  I  proclaim  to  you  that  which  you  worship  in  your 
ignorance.  The  God  who  made  the  world  and  all  things 
in  it,  he,  being  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  doth  not  dwell 
in  shrines  made  by  human  hands.  He  is  not  served  by 
human  hands,  as  if  he  needed  anything,  for  he  it  is  who 
giveth  life  and  breath  and  all  things  to  all  men.  He  hath 
created  all  nations  from  a  common  ancestor  that  they  may 
inhabit  all  the  surface  of  the  earth.  He  hath  also  fixed  for 
them  their  allotted  periods  and  the  boundaries  of  their 
abodes  that  they  may  seek  for  God  on  the  chance  of  finding 
him  in  their  groping  for  him,  although  he  is  not  far  from 
each  one  of  us ;  for  it  is  in  him  that  we  live  and  move  and 
exist,  as  certain  of  your  own  poets  have  said,  For  we  also 
are  his  offspring.  Therefore,  as  the  offspring  of  God,  we 
ought  not  to  imagine  that  the  divine  nature  resembles 
gold  or  silver  or  stone,  the  product  of  human  art  and  in- 
vention. These  ages  of  ignorance  God  overlooked,  but  he 
now  commandeth  men  that  they  are  all  everywhere  to  re- 
pent, since  he  hath  fixed  a  day  on  which  he  will  judge  the 
world  justly  by  a  man  whom  he  hath  destined  for  this. 

133 


PAUL'S  WORK  AT  ATHENS 

And  he  hath  given  proof  of  this  to  all  by  raising  him  from 
the  dead. 
its  But  when  they  heard  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 

(SXf     some  sneered,  while  others  said,  We  will  hear  you  again 
on  this  matter.     So  Paul  withdrew  from  their  midst.     Cer- 
tain men,  however,  joined  him  and  believed,  among  whom 
were  Dionysius,  the  Areopagite,  a  woman  called  Damaris, 
and  some  others  with  them. 
Pauls        After  this  Paul  left  Athens  and  went  to  Corinth.    There 
SS^?"  he  found  a  Jew  named  Aquila,  a  native  of  Pontus,  who 
P°£      had  recently  come  from  Italy  with  his  wife,  Priscilla,  for 
(181-*)     Claudius   had    ordered    all   Jews    to    leave    Rome.    Paul 
visited  them  and,  as  he  was  of  the  same  trade,  he  remained 
with  them  and  they  all  worked  together,  for  by  trade  they 
were  tent-makers.     On  every  sabbath  he  argued  in  the 
synagogue  and  tried  to  persuade  both  Jews  and  Greeks. 
By  the  time  that  Silas  and  Timothy  came  down  from  Mace- 
donia, Paul  was  engrossed  in  preaching  the  word,  testify- 
ing to  the  Jews  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.    But  as  they 
opposed  and  abused  him,  he  shook  out  his  garments  in 
protest,  saying,  Your  blood  be  on  your  own  heads!    I  am 
not  responsible ;  after  this  I  will  go  to  the  Gentiles. 
Pauls        Then  Paul  went  to  the  house  of  a  devout  proselyte  called 
jt^kT     Titus  Justus,  which  adjoined  the  synagogue.    But  Crispus, 
g°£      the  president  of  the  synagogue,  believed  in  the  Lord,  to- 
V-19)      gether  with  all  his  household;  and  many  of  the  Corin- 
thians   hearing,   believed    and   were    baptized.    And   the 
Lord  said  to  Paul  in  a  vision  at  night,  Have  no  fear,  speak 
on  and  do  not  stop,  for  I  am  with  you  and  no  one  will  attack 
you  to  injure  you ;  I  have  many  people  in  this  city.     So  Paul 
settled  there  a  year  and  six  months,  teaching  among  them 
the  word  of  God. 
Pauls        But  when  Gallio  became  proconsul  of  Achaia,  the  Jews 
fense      with  one  accord  rose  against  Paul  and  brought  him  before 
GeauS    *ke  tribunal  saying,  This  man  is  inducing  people  to  wor- 
(ii-i»)     ship  God  contrary  to  the  law.    But  when  Paul  was  about 
to  begin  his  defense,  Gallio  said  to  the  Jews,  If  it  had 
been  a  misdemeanor  or  wicked  crime,  I  might  reasonably 
listen  to  you,  O  Jews ;  but  as  these  are  merely  questions  of 
words  and  names  and  your  law,  you  yourselves  can  attend 

134 


PAUL'S  DEFENSE  BEFORE  GALLIO 

to  them.  I  do  not  wish  to  pass  judgment  upon  such  mat- 
ters. So  he  drove  them  from  the  tribunal.  Then  all  the 
Greeks,  seizing  Sosthenes,  the  president  of  the  synagogue, 
beat  him  before  the  tribunal;  but  Gallio  did  not  take  the 
least  notice  of  these  things.  Then  after  waiting  for  a 
number  of  days,  Paul  took  leave  of  the  brothers  and  sailed 
for  Syria,  accompanied  by  Priscilla  and  Aquila. 

I.  The  Athens  of  Paul's  Day.  Finding  the  door  of  Macedonia 
temporarily  closed  to  him,  Paul  naturally  turned  to  the  original  home 
of  Greek  culture.  The  goal  of  his  journey  from  Bercea  was  evidently 
the  great  commercial  city  of  Corinth,  but  Athens,  like  a  loadstone,  at- 
tracted him  irresistibly.  Curiosity  and  his  natural  itinerary,  rather 
than  missionary  zeal,  apparently  carried  him  thither.  Although 
stripped  of  all  political  power  and  much  of  its  intellectual  prestige, 
Athens  still  stood  at  the  height  of  its  material  splendor.  It  contained 
much  that  must  have  been  of  keenest  interest  to  Paul.  During  his 
sojourn  of  several  days  he  probably  found  his  way  to  the  great  Stadium, 
on  the  hills  at  the  east  of  the  city,  which  had  only  recently  been  com- 
pleted. Here  were  held  the  Panatheniac  games — a  type  of  sport  with 
which  Paul  was  well  acquainted  and  in  which  he  probably  was  keenly 
interested.  In  the  centre  of  Athens  arose  the  stately  Acropolis, 
crowned  by  the  Parthenon,  the  chief  glory  of  Athenian  art  and  the 
home  of  Pallas  Athena,  the  goddess  of  wisdom.  About  it  were  grouped 
the  marvellous  temples  and  public  buildings  which  made  Athens  ar- 
chitecturally the  most  beautiful  city  in  the  ancient  world.  Paul's 
attention  was  probably  arrested  by  the  massive  temple  of  Olympian 
Zeus,  standing  southeast  of  the  Acropolis,  which  had  been  reared  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  arch-persecutor  of  Judaism.  Below  the 
Acropolis  on  the  southwest  was  the  Agora,  the  centre  of  Athens's  com- 
mercial and  intellectual  life.  On  the  west  was  the  Royal  Porch  in  which 
the  court  of  the  Areopagus  at  this  period  usually  held  its  sessions. 
On  the  south  was  the  Senate  house,  the  Hall  of  Zeus,  and  the  Stoa 
Pcecile.  Immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Agora  was  the  Areopagus,  or 
Hill  of  Mars,  originally  separated  from  the  Acropolis  by  a  deep,  narrow 
chasm. 

II.  Paul's  Attitude  Toward  the  Intellectual  and  Religious 
Life  of  Athens.  In  the  cosmopolitan  university  atmosphere  of 
Athens  the  Jew  from  the  university  town  of  Tarsus  found  himself  in 
part  at  least  at  home.     He  apparently  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the 

135 


PAUL'S  WORK  AT  ATHENS 

Agora.  Its  intense  business  and  intellectual  activity  fascinated  this 
cosmopolitan  city  dweller.  In  the  Stoa  Pcecile,  Zeno,  the  founder  of 
the  Stoic  philosophy,  had  lived  and  taught  about  three  centuries  earlier. 
It  was  still  the  favorite  place  where  the  Stoic  philosophers  met  their 
disciples  and  from  whence  their  influence  radiated  to  distant  Tarsus 
and  dominated  the  intellectual  life  of  that  great  commercial  city. 
Here  also  Cleanthes,  the  illustrious  pupil  of  Zeno,  had  sung  his  im- 
mortal hymn  to  Zeus,  from  which  Paul  quotes  in  his  famous  address 
to  the  men  of  Athens: 

O  God,  most  glorious,  called  by  many  a  name, 

Nature's  great  King,  through  endless  years  the  same; 

Omnipotence,  who  by  thy  just  decree 

Controllest  all,  hail  Zeus,  for  unto  thee 

Behooves  thy  creatures  in  all  lands  to  call. 

We  are  thy  children,  we  alone,  of  all 

On  earth's  broad  ways  that  wander  to  and  fro, 

Bearing  thy  image  wheresoe'er  we  go, 

Therefore  with  songs  of  praise  thy  power  I  will  forth  show. 

Three  centuries  earlier  also  in  this  same  city  Epicurus  had  lived  for 
a  considerable  period  and  founded  the  philosophy  which  bore  his  name. 
The  most  prominent  among  the  lecturers  and  students  from  all  parts 
of  the  Roman  Empire  who  thronged  the  Agora  were  the  followers  of 
Zeno  and  Epicurus.  Paul  in  the  midst  of  this  throng  appears  to  have 
arrested  attention  both  by  his  appearance  and  by  his  actions.  In 
the  university  slang  of  the  day  he  was  soon  contemptuously  character- 
ized as  "a  worthless  picker-up  of  scraps  of  learning."  In  this  in- 
tellectual life  of  Athens  Paul  found  much  which  he  could  approve. 
In  its  strong  emphasis  on  the  moral  life  and  in  its  growing  belief  in 
one  supreme  God  back  of  all  phenomena,  which  Cleanthes  so  nobly 
voices  in  his  hymn  to  Zeus,  he  found  many  points  of  contact.  The 
deeply  religious  spirit  of  the  city  also  impressed  him.  The  Roman 
writer  Petronius  says  sarcastically  that  it  was  easier  to  find  a  god  in 
Athens  than  a  man !  Pausanias  a  century  later  said  there  were  more 
gods  in  Athens  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  country.  Recent  excava- 
tions have  disclosed  a  broken  altar  which  apparently  bore  the  in- 
scription: 

"To  the  Unknown  Gods 

Capiton 

Torchcarrier." 

136 


PAUL'S  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  ATHENIAN  CULTURE 

The  beauty  of  the  Athenian  temples  and  the  peerless  statues  may  have 
appealed  to  Paul,  for  his  repeated  use  of  building  figures  reveals  a 
certain  interest,  but  what  impressed  him  most  and  at  the  same  time 
irritated  him  was  this  evidence  on  every  side  of  the  idolatry  regnant 
in  this  most  cultured  city.  Luke's  Macedonian  point  of  view  is  evinced 
in  his  general  criticism  in  Acts  182L  and  yet  it  was  on  the  whole  true  /  7 
of  the  life  of  the  city  at  the  period  when  Paul  visited  it:  "For  all  the 
Athenians  and  the  foreign  visitors  to  Athens  occupied  themselves  with 
nothing  else  than  with  repeating  and  listening  to  the  latest  novelty." 
Apparently  the  common  people,  as  well  as  the  foreign  students  that 
thronged  the  city,  were  confirmed  lecture  tasters  but  lacked  the  depth 
of  conviction  and  emotion  necessary  for  fundamental  transformations 
in  character  and  life.  The  attitude  of  the  Athenian  university  crowd 
toward  Paul  seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  contemptuous.  Here 
was  a  voluble  Jew  who  promised  them  certain  entertainment — a  re- 
ligious sensation.  Although  Socrates  had  been  condemned  to  death 
by  the  court  of  the  Areopagus  on  the  charge  of  introducing  the  wor- 
ship of  new  gods,  the  Athenians  had  since  the  days  of  Socrates  out- 
grown their  intolerance  and  prided  themselves  instead  on  welcoming 
teachers  of  all  religions.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  court  of 
the  Areopagus,  the  duties  of  which  in  earlier  days  appear  to  have  been 
the  regulation  of  morals  and  education,  still  exercised  a  certain  super- 
vision over  the  lecturers  who  were  allowed  to  present  their  teachings 
in  the  Agora.  The  evidence  is  clear  that  Paul  was  not  placed  on  trial 
under  a  definite  charge  but  that  rather  he  was  given  an  opportunity 
to  present  his  new  teachings  in  order  that  the  members  of  the  court 
might  determine  whether  he  should  be  permitted  to  continue  to  teach 
in  their  midst. 

III.  Paul's  Address  to  the  Athenian  Crowd.  The  scene  of 
Paul's  memorable  address,  as  reported  in  Acts  17,  was  evidently  the 
Agora,  and  very  probably  in  or  near  the  Royal  Porch,  where  the 
court  of  the  Areopagus  held  its  sessions.  Paul's  introductory  words, 
as  well  as  the  contents  of  his  address,  indicate  that  his  audience  con- 
sisted not  merely  of  philosophers  and  members  of  the  court  but  also 
included  the  Athenian  mob,  the  "worthless  pickers-up  of  scraps  of 
learning,"  whose  decisions,  like  that  of  every  Oriental  mob,  carried 
weight  with  the  ruling  authorities.  To  them,  as  the  more  hopeful 
elements  in  his  audience,  Paul  seems  to  have  primarily  addressed 
his  speech.  As  Professor  Ramsay  has  said  (St.  Paul,  p.  150) :  "There 
is  nothing  in  the  reported  words  of  Paul  at  Lystra  and  Athens  (with 

137 


*.♦ 


PAUL'S  WORK  AT  ATHENS 

a  possible  exception  of  'the  man  whom  he  hath  ordained')  that  several 
Greek  philosophers  might  not  have  said."  With  marvellous  skill  he 
adjusted  himself  to  his  environment  and  established  a  common  point 
of  contact  between  himself  and  his  hearers.  In  many  respects  the 
principle  contained  in  his  address  as  here  reported  was  the  same  as 
is  found  in  his  letter  to  the  Romans  in  I19-32.  The  passage  from  the 
hymn  of  the  Stoic  poet  Cleanthes,  to  which  Paul  alludes,  was  one  of 
the  noblest  expressions  of  the  growing  belief  among  the  Greek  philos- 
ophers that  one  supreme  personality  was  back  of  the  phenomena  of 
nature  and  therefore  the  ultimate  object  of  all  worship.  Equally 
significant  is  the  similar  hymn  to  Zeus  that  comes  from  Aratus,  the 
poet  of  Soli,  in  Cilicia,  Paul's  native  province,  whom  the  apostle  possi- 
bly also  had  in  mind: 

Zeus  fills  all  the  city  streets 
Of  the  nation's  crowded  marts;  fills  the  watery  deeps 
And  heavens.     Every  laborer  needs  the  help  of  Zeus. 
His  children  are  we.     He,  benignant, 
Raises  high  signals,  summoning  man  to  toil, 
And  warning  him  of  life's  demands. 

Here,  as  at  Thessalonica,  Paul's  aim  was  to  turn  the  Gentiles  from 
the  worship  of  idols  to  the  one  living  God.  In  his  broad  attitude  to- 
ward the  Gentile  world  and  in  his  declaration  that  the  earlier  ages  of 
ignorance  God  overlooked,  Paul  reveals  the  influence  of  the  Jewish 
Stoic  who  has  given  us  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  which  reads  in  ll23: 
"Thou  overlookest  the  sins  of  men  to  the  end  that  they  may  repent." 
Paul's  Athenian  audience  followed  him  until  he  began  to  set  forth  the 
Jewish  doctrine  of  a  final  judgment-day  and  to  tell  of  the  resurrection 
of  him  whom  God  had  destined  to  sit  on  the  seat  of  judgment.  True 
to  their  well-known  characteristics,  the  Athenian  audience  was  divided 
in  its  judgment;  but  contempt  or  general  indifference  prevailed.  Paul's 
immediate  departure  from  the  city  also  suggests  strongly  that  the  court 
of  the  Areopagus,  if  it  passed  formal  judgment  upon  his  address,  refused 
him  the  rights  of  the  Agora.  The  author  of  Acts,  although  elsewhere 
inclined  to  magnify  the  results  of  the  work  of  the  early  apostles,  is 
evidently  here  faithful  to  his  data,  for  he  emphasizes  simply  the  few- 
ness of  those  who  responded  to  Paul's  preaching.  Paul  himself  speaks 
later  of  Stephanas  of  Corinth  as  the  first-fruits  of  Achaia  (I  Cor.  1615), 
implying  that  he  regarded  his  earlier  work  in  Athens  as  practically  fruit- 
less.    This  outcome  of  his  brief  sojourn  at  the  historic  centre  of  Greek 

138 


PAUL'S  ADDRESS  TO  THE  ATHENIANS 

culture  is  not  so  much  a  demonstration  of  Paul's  limitations  as  a  reve- 
lation of  the  character  of  the  class  to  which  he  spoke. 

IV.  Paul's  Skill  as  an  Orator.  It  is  not  probable  that  the 
author  of  Acts  has  preserved  a  verbatim  report  of  Paul's  addresses; 
but  he  has  given  us  an  exceedingly  vivid  impression  of  the  consum- 
mate skill,  as  well  as  devotion,  which  made  Paul  the  great  apostle  to 
the  Greek  world.  In  appealing  to  his  Gentile  audiences  he  was  handi- 
capped by  the  strong  prejudices  then  felt  toward  his  race,  by  his 
rather  unattractive  personal  appearance,  by  his  involved  literary 
style,  by  his  rabbinical  methods  of  thought,  and,  above  all,  by  the 
fact  that  in  his  appeal  he  spoke  more  to  the  heart  than  to  the  mind. 
Notwithstanding  these  seemingly  impossible  handicaps,  he  reached 
and  won|many  of  the  most  thoughtful  and  cultured  men  of  his  age 
by  his  words  and  by  his  personality.  He  was  like  a  rushing  moun- 
tain torrent  that  carried  all  before  it.  The  source  of  his  irresistible 
strength  was  his  absolute  conviction  of  the  truth  of  what  he  spoke 
and  of  his  divinely  given  authority  to  proclaim  it.  Apparently,  never 
for  a  moment  did  he  question  his  call  or  the  certainty  of  his  con- 
victions. To  this  assurance  was  added. an  intense  earnestness,  ac- 
centuated doubtless  by  his  belief  that  the  end  of  the  present  order 
was  at  hand.  Like  the  old  Hebrew  prophets,  he  was  ever  dominated 
by  an  overwhelming  sense  of  responsibility  and  a  passionate  desire 
to  save  men  from  the  appalling  calamity  which  he  felt  to  be  imminent. 
While  on  the  one  side  he  shared  the  Jewish  apocalyptic  expectations, 
he  felt  the  deep  craving  of  the  Gentile  world  for  personal  salvation 
and  for  the  consciousness  of  fellowship  and  friendship  with  the  In- 
finite. Hence,  his  words  appeal  to  universal  human  needs.  He  was 
keen  to  appreciate  these  needs  but  he  was  equally  skilful  in  adapting 
his  message  to  his  audiences.  He  had  the  rare  art  of  "being  all  things 
to  all  men."  He  was  also  conscious  of  this  art  and  deliberately  exer- 
cised it:  "To  the  Jews  I  become  like  a  Jew,  in  order  to  win  Jews. 
To  those  outside  the  law,  I  become  as  one  outside  of  the  law,  in  order 
that  I  may  win  those  outside  of  the  law.  To  the  weak  I  become  as 
one  weak  myself,  in  order  to  win  over  the  weak."  He  met  the  pagan 
peasants  of  Lystra  and  the  cultured  students  of  Athens  on  the  common 
ground  of  universal  religion.  Having  established  a  close  point  of  con- 
tact, he  led  them  on  tactfully  to  the  appreciation  and  acceptance  of 
his  own  point  of  view.  To  the  Jews  he  appealed  on  the  basis  of  the 
promises  contained  in  their  ancient  scriptures.  To  use  his  own  figure, 
he  never  planted  his  blows  as  one  who  beats  the  air.    To  his  earnest 

139 


PAUL'S  WORK  AT  ATHENS 

and  consummate  tact  he  added  a  profound  sympathy  for  those  whom 
he  sought  to  reach.  His  method,  like  that  of  Jesus,  was  not  negative 
and  destructive,  but  prevailingly  positive  and  constructive.  His  aim 
was  not  merely  to  interest  and  convince  men,  but  to  save  them.  The 
motive  power  in  Paul,  the  orator,  therefore,  was  not  mere  logic,  but 
love  for  men  and  loyalty  to  the  Master  whom  he  served.  Back  of  his 
words  was  his  heroic  personality.  He  spoke  from  personal  experience, 
directly  out  of  his  own  heart  to  the  hearts  of  men.  To  these  strong 
qualifications  were  added  a  wide  and  varied  knowledge  of  the  world 
and  of  human  nature,  a  bold  originality  and  unusual  ability  in  using 
apt  and  popular  figures  of  speech  and  illustrations.  These  he  drew 
from  the  life  of  the  merchant,  the  farmer,  the  traveller,  the  sailor,  and 
even  the  athlete.  Colloquial  phrases,  current  in  the  agora,  the  forum, 
and  the  temple,  were  constantly  on  his  lips,  for  Paul  was  supremely 
skilful  in  interpreting  the  Gospel  into  the  every-day  life  and  thought 
of  the  exceedingly  varied  audiences  to  which  he  spoke. 

V.  PauPs  Problems  and  Methods  at  Corinth.  The  great 
metropolis  of  Corinth  lay  on  the  "Bridge  of  the  Sea/'  the  isthmus 
which  separated  the  Corinthian  from  the  Saronic  Gulf.  This  narrow 
neck  of  land  cut  straight  across  the  shortest  natural  highway  from 
Rome  to  Ephesus  and  the  East.  Every  cargo  sent  on  this  route 
must  here  be  transshipped.  Hence  it  was  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  centres  in  the  Roman  world.  The  city  was  built  on  a 
broad  natural  terrace  above  which  its  acropolis  rose  to  a  height  of 
about  eighteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Corinth  had  been  a 
Roman  colony  since  the  days  of  Julius  Csesar.  To  it  had  gravitated 
the  most  varied  population.  It  was  opulent,  cosmopolitan,  corrupt, 
and  profligate.  Into  it  had  poured,  not  only  the  gold  and  the  ideas, 
but  the  vices  of  the  East  and  West.  Strategically,  it  was  of  the  great- 
est importance,  for  ideas  implanted  here  would  readily  spread  through 
the  Roman  world.  Corinth  was  a  city  well  calculated  to  appeal 
powerfully  to  the  sympathies,  to  the  heroic  daring,  and  to  the  broad 
statesmanship  of  Paul.  Fortune,  or  rather  seeming  misfortune,  drove 
him  here.  Hunted  from  Philippi,  Thessalonica,  and  Bercea,  baffled  at 
Athens,  anxious,  harassed  by  poverty  and  weakened  by  sickness,  Paul 
about  50  a.d.  entered  upon  his  work  in  this  capital  and  metropolis 
of  Achaia.  For  about  a  year  and  a  half  he  lived  and  worked  here.  To 
support  himself  he  took  up  his  occupation  as  a  tent-maker.  His 
earliest  friends  and  fellow  workmen  were  Aquila  and  his  wife,  Prisca, 
or,  as  she  is  better  known  by  the  diminutive  form  of  her  name,  Pris- 

140 


PAUL'S  PROBLEMS  AT  CORINTH 

cilia.  They  were  natives  of  Pontus,  but  had  lived  in  Rome  until  they 
had  recently  been  expelled  by  the  edict  of  Claudius,  which  is  dated  by 
Orosius  in  49  B.C.  Suetonius  declares  that  this  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
was  due  to  a  certain  riot  led  by  one  Chrestus.  Apparently  this  is  a 
popular  corruption  of  the  name  Christ,  and  the  remark  of  Suetonius 
suggests  that  at  this  early  date  the  Christians  already  formed  a  strong 
community  in  the  capital  city.  The  fact  that  Paul  early  made  his 
home  with  Priscilla  and  Aquila  and  that  he  never  includes  them 
among  his  converts  indicates  that  they  were  Christians  before  they 
found  refuge  in  Corinth.  Paul's  intimate  relations  with  them  un- 
doubtedly put  him  in  close  touch  with  conditions  in  Rome  and  must 
have  contributed  to  his  growing  desire  to  visit  the  imperial  city.  Fol- 
lowing his  usual  custom,  Paul  first  sought  through  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue to  gain  a  public  hearing.  Silas  and  Timothy  aided  him  in  his 
work,  but  soon  they  experienced  the  usual  reaction.  A  majority  of 
the  Jews  rejected  Paul's  claim  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah;  but  at 
least  one  devout  proselyte,  and  probably  several,  opened  their  hearts 
and  their  homes  to  Paul's  message.  With  his  usual  persistence  and 
boldness,  Paul  chose  the  house  of  Titus  Justus,  which  adjoined  the  syna- 
gogue, as  the  new  centre  of  his  work.  Crispus,  a  high  official  in  the 
synagogue,  accepted  Paul's  teachings  and  his  example  exerted  a  strong 
influence  on  all  classes  in  Corinth.  So  successful  was  Paul's  work  that 
it  aroused  the  usual  persecution,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Jews. 
In  their  blind  rage  they  dragged  Paul  before  the  Roman  proconsul, 
Gallio,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Stoic  philosopher  Seneca.  Recogniz- 
ing that  the  case  was  simply  a  quarrel  between  the  partisans  of  dif- 
ferent religious  sects  the  proconsul  summarily  dismissed  the  case  and 
drove  them  from  the  tribunal.  It  is  not  entirely  clear  whether  it  was 
hatred  of  the  Jews  or  interest  in  Paul  and  his  teachings  which  led  the 
mob  to  seize  Sosthenes,  the  president  of  the  Jewish  synagogue,  and 
beat  him.  Their  action  certainly  did  not  reflect  the  spirit  of  Paul's 
teachings.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  this  was  the  same  Sosthenes 
to  whom  Paul  refers  later  as  a  devoted  convert.  In  his  correspondence 
with  the  Corinthians  Paul  tells  us  that  at  Corinth  he  abandoned  all 
philosophical  discussions  and  terminology  and  devoted  himself  solely 
to  proclaiming  in  simplest  terms  the  Gospel  of  the  cross. 

VI.  The  Results  of  Paul's  Work  in  Corinth.  The  eighteen 
months  spent  at  Corinth  were  among  the  most  critical  and  fruitful 
in  Paul's  ministry.  The  transformation  of  the  ignorant  and  corrupt 
Greeks  of  this  voluptuous  city  into  worthy  Christians  was  the  great- 

141 


PAUL'S  WORK  AT  CORINTH 

est  miracle  in  Paul's  ministry,  if  not  in  the  early  history  of  Christian- 
ity. Here  he  was  battling  with  the  most  seductive  and  brazen  form 
of  immorality  which,  under  the  guise  of  the  old  pagan  religions,  had 
permeated  the  whole  life  of  Corinth.  To  this  deep-seated  immorality 
was  added  the  gross  materialism  of  a  strongly  commercial  city  and 
the  fickleness  which  has  always  been  a  characteristic  of  the  Greek 
race.  In  the  face  of  all  these  odds  Paul  established  a  strong  Chris- 
tian church  at  Corinth.  The  so-called  First  Epistle  of  Clement,  which 
was  written  near  the  close  of  the  first  Christian  century  by  the  Church 
of  Rome  to  the  Corinthian  Christians,  speaks  of  their  name  as  vener- 
able and  famous  and  worthy  of  all  men's  love.  Elsewhere  in  the  same 
epistle  is  found  this  high  commendation:  "Who  ever  dwelt  even  for 
a  short  time  among  you,  and  did  not  find  your  faith  to  be  as  fruitful 
of  virtue  as  it  was  firmly  established?  Who  did  not  admire  the 
sobriety  and  moderation  of  your  godliness  in  Christ  and  who  did  not 
rejoice  over  your  perfect  and  well-rounded  knowledge?"  It  is  from 
Corinth  also  that  Paul  sent  his  letters  to  the  Macedonian  churches 
and,  through  the  frequent  visits  of  his  assistants,  strengthened  and 
confirmed  them  in  the  Christian  faith.  Here  also  he  met  the  attack 
of  the  narrow  Judaizers  who  sought  to  undermine  his  work  in  Galatia 
and  even  found  their  way  to  Corinth  itself.  Paul's  ministry  at  Cor- 
inth appears  to  have  been  one  long  battle,  and  the  battle  by  no  means 
ceased  when  he  went  on  to  Ephesus;  but  in  the  end  he  won  a  victory 
which  marked  a  great  and  signal  advance  in  Christianity's  conquest 
of  the  Roman  world. 

§CLVH.    PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE 
CORINTHIAN  CHURCH 

Th©  Paul  called  to  be  an  apostle  of  Christ  Jesus  through 

1S§^"  the  will  of  God,  with  brother  Sosthenes,  to  the  church  of 
Paur?  ^oc*  a*  Corinth,  to  those  who  are  consecrated  in  Christ 
second  Jesus,  called  to  be  saints,  as  well  as  to  all  who  in  every 
(fcor.  place  call  on  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  their  Lord 
»1"*)       as  well  as  ours :  grace  and  peace  to  you  from  God  our  Father 

and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
His  I  thank  my  God  continually  in  your  behalf  for  the  divine 

reasons  gj.ace  which  has  been  bestowed  on  you  in  Jesus  Christ,  in 
S?k!j~  *  through  him  you  have  been  so  richly  blessed  with  all 
(«-*)       power  of  speech  and  with  all  knowledge.    Thus  in  you 

the  testimony  which  we  bore  to  Christ  has  been  confirmed. 

142 


PAUL'S  APPEAL  TO  DROP  PARTY  STRIFE 

Brothers,  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  I  beg  of  Appeal 
you  that  you  all  speak  in  harmony.    There  must  be  no  %*artyP 
divisions  among  you,  but  rather  you  must  be  united  with  ^nfe 
the  same  mind  and  by  the  same  point  of  view.    For  I  have 
been  informed  regarding  you,  brothers,  by  Chloe's  people, 
that  there  are  dissensions  among  you.    What  I  mean  is 
this:   each  of  you  is  saying,  *I  belong  to  Paul,'  and  *I  to 
Apollos,'  and  *I  to  Cephas*  [Peter],  and  *I  to  Christ.'    Is 
Christ  divided?    Was  Paul  crucified  for  you,  or  was  it  in 
Paul's  name  that  you  were  baptized?    I  am  thankful  that 
I  baptized  none  of  you  except  Crispus  and  Gaius,  so  that 
no  man  can  say  that  you  were  baptized  in  my  name.    Yes, 
I  did  baptize  the  household  of  Stephanus,  but  I  baptized 
no  one  else  as  far  as  I  know.    For  Christ  sent  me  not  to 
baptize,  but  to  preach  the  gospel. 

For  when  the  world  with  its  wisdom  failed  to  know  God  The 
in  his  wisdom,  God  was  pleased,  through  the  foolishness  SJS?le 
of  the  message  which  we  proclaim,  to  save  those  who  be-  ^|eof 
lieve.    The  Jews  demand  miracles  and  the  Greeks  seek  cross 
wisdom.    We,  however,  proclaim  Christ,  the  crucified,  a  (21 25) 
stumbling  block  to  the  Jews,  mere  foolishness  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, but  to  those  who  are  called,  whether  Jews  or  Greeks, 
a  Christ  who  is  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom  of  God. 
For  the  foolishness  of  God  is  wiser  than  men  and  the 
weakness  of  God  is  stronger  than  men. 

For,  brothers,  look  at  those  of  your  number  whom  God  nius- 
hath  called:  not  many  wise  according  to  human  judgment,  S^ 
not  many  mighty,  not  many  of  noble  birth  have  been  called,  gjgj?" 
Rather,  God  hath  chosen  the  foolish  things  of  the  world,  to  church 
put  to  shame  the  wise ;  God  hath  chosen  the  weak  things  in  (26  29) 
the  world,  to  put  to  shame  the  strong;  God  hath  chosen  the 
base  and  despised  things  of  the  earth — things  which  are 
not — to  bring  to  naught  the  things  which  are,  that  no 
mortal  man  may  boast  in  the  presence  of  God. 

And  so  when  I  came  to  you,  my  brothers,  I  came  not  to  Paul's  i 
proclaim  to  you  with  excellency  of  speech  or  wisdom  the  cS_at 
mystery  of  God.    Rather  I  determined  while  among  you  to  ^th" 
know  nothing  except  Jesus  Christ  and  him  crucified.    It  was 
in  weakness  and  in  fear  and  with  much  trembling  that  I 
came  to  you.    My  language  and  my  message  did  not  de- 

143 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

pend  on  persuasive  words  of  wisdom,  but  on  the  demon- 
stration of  the  Spirit  and  of  its  power,  that  your  faith  might 
not  rest  on  any  wisdom  of  men  but  on  the  power  of  God. 
The  Who  among  men  knows  a  man's  thoughts,  except  the 

of*5?e     spirit  of  the  man  within  him?    So  too,  no  one  knows  the 
8a?s~    thoughts  of  God  except  the  Spirit  of  God.    But  we  have 
wis-       not  received  the  spirit  of  the  world,  but  the  Spirit  which 
(i?S)      comes  from  God,  that  we  may  know  the  blessings  which 
come  from  God.    And  of  these  things  we  speak*  not  in 
language   taught  by  human  wisdom,  but  taught  by  the 
Spirit,  interpreting  spiritual  things  in  spiritual  terms.    The 
unspiritual  man  does  not  receive  the  truths  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  for  they  are  folly  to  him  and  he  cannot  know  them, 
since  they  must  be  spiritually  appreciated.    The  spiritual 
man,  on  the  contrary,  can  appreciate  all  things,  although 
he  himself  is  appreciated  by  no  one.    For  who  has  known 
the  mind  of  the  Lord,  so  as  to  instruct  him?    But  we  have 
the  mind  of  Christ. 
The  But  I,  brothers,  was  not  able  to  speak  to  you  as  spirit- 

dence     ual  persons.    I  had  to  speak  to  you  as  worldlings,  as  babes 
ficktf   *n  Christ.    I  fed  you  with  milk,  not  solid  food,  for  you 
spirit-    were  not  strong  enough,  and  you  are  not  even  strong  enough 
Slht?"    now>  y°u  are  still  worldly.    For  with  jealousy  and  quarrel- 
the°ns   *nS  in  your  midst,  are  you  not  worldly?    Are  you  not  act- 
corin-    ing  like  ordinary  men?    For  whenever  any  one   says,  *I 
Is*™    belong  to  Paul'  and  'I  to  Apollos,'  are  you  not  like  ordinary 
men?    Who  then  is  Apollos?    Who  is  Paul?    They  are 
simply  servants  through  whom,  as  to  each  the  Lord  gave 
power,    you   learned   to    believe.    I   planted    and  Apollos 
watered,  but  God  made  the  seed  grow.     So  neither  the 
planter  nor  the  waterer  is  important,  but  God  who  maketh 
the  seed  grow. 
Be-  #        We  are  fellow  workers  with  God.    You  are  God's  field, 
bmfyi_   God's  building.    According  to  the  grace  of  God  which  was 
teacher  £*ven  me  as  ^e  w*se  master-builder,  I  laid  the  foundation; 
(•-»)       but  another  builds  on  this  foundation.     Let  each  be  careful 
how  he  builds,  for  no  one  can  lay  any  other  foundation  than 
that  which  is  laid,  namely,  Jesus  Christ. 

Do  you  not  know  that  you  are  God's  temple  and  that  God's 
Spirit  dwells  within  you?    If  anyone  destroys  God's  tem- 

144 


OBLIGATIONS  OF  THE   CORINTHIANS 

pie,  God  will  destroy  that  one,  for  God's  temple  is  sacred,  obiiga- 
and  that  is  what  you  are.    Therefore,  let  no  one  boast  Jj^e 
about  men.     For  all  things  are  yours :  Paul,  Apollos,  Cephas,  gorta- 
the  world,  life,  death,  the  present,  and  the  future — all  are   (».». 
yours  and  you  are  Christ's  and  Christ  is  God's. 

You  are  satisfied  already,  are  you?    You  are  rich  al-  Pauls 
ready!    You  reign  without  us!    Would,  indeed,  that  we  febS 
might  reign  with  you!    For  I  think  God  hath  set  forth  us  ©raw 
apostles  last  of  all,  as  men  doomed  to  death !    We  are  made  twans 
as  spectacles  to  the  world,  to  angels,  and  to  men.    For   (4813) 
Christ's  sake  we  are  fools,  but  you  are  wise  in  Christ!    We 
are  weak  but  you  are  strong!    You  are  honored,  we  are 
dishonored!    To  this  very  hour  we  hunger  and  thirst,  we 
are  scantily  clad  and  knocked  about.    We  are  homeless. 
Wearily  we  toil  with  our  own  hands.    When  reviled,  we 
bless.    When    persecuted,    we    put    up    with    it.    When 
slandered,  we  try  to  conciliate.    We  have  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  scum  of  the  earth,  the  refuse  of  the  uni- 
verse, even  until  now. 

I  am  not  writing  this  to  make  you  ashamed,  but  to  counsel  His 
you  as  my  beloved  children.    For  if  you  had  ten  thousand  gJde" 
instructors  in  Christ,  you  could  not  have  many  fathers.    I,  g£m 
it  was,  who  in  Christ  Jesus  became  your  father  by  means   ("■«) 
of  the  gospel.    I  beg  of  you,  therefore,  imitate  me.    To 
this  end,  I  am  sending  you  Timothy,  who  is  my  beloved 
and  faithful  son  in  the  Lord.    He  will  remind  you  of  my 
methods  in  Christ  Jesus  by  which  I  teach  everywhere,  in 
every  church.     Some  of  you  have  been  puffed  up,  as  if  I 
were   not  coming  to   you.    Indeed,   I   will   come   to   you 
quickly,  if  the  Lord  willeth,  and  then  I  will  learn  from  those 
who  are  puffed  up,  not  what  they  say,  but  what  power  they 
have.    For  the  Kingdom  of  God  is  not  a  thing  of  words 
but  of  power.    What  do  you  wish?     Shall  I  come  to  you 
with  the  rod,  or  with  a  loving  and  gentle  spirit? 

It  is  actually  reported  that  there  is  immorality  among  His 
you,  immorality  such  as  is  not  even  practised  among  the  JgS^a. 
Gentiles — that  a  man  has  taken  his  father's  wife !    And  yet  gon  of 
you  are  puffed  up!    You  should  rather  mourn,  in  order  gXnt 
that  the  perpetrator  of  such  a  crime  might  be  expelled  from  SSg*" 
your  midst.    I,  indeed,  though  absent  in  the  body,  but  (S1-**) 

145 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

present  in  spirit,*have  already  come  to  a  decision  as  though 
present,  namely,  that  by  the  power  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  when 
you  are  assembled  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  and  my 
spirit  is  with  you,  that  individual  be  delivered  over  to  Satan 
for  the  destruction  of  his  flesh  in  order  that  his  spirit  may 
•be  saved  in  the  day  of  our  Lord  Jesus. 
The  I  wrote  you  in  my  letter  that  you  were  not  to  associate 

Snt"     with  the  immoral,  not  that  in  this  world  you  are  to  keep 
those     entirely  aloof  from  the  immoral  or  the  avaricious  or  the 
who       thievish  or  from  idolaters,  since  in  that  case  you  would  have 
liber-6"   to  leave  the  world  altogether.    What  I  now  write  is,  that 
ateiy      vou  qjq  not  t0  associate  with  any  so-called  brother  who  is 
moral     immoral  or  avaricious  or  idolatrous  or  given  to  abusive 
(913)      language  or  hard  drinking  or  robbery.    With  such  you  ought 
not  even  to  eat.     For  what  business  have  I  to  judge  out- 
siders ?    Is  it  not  for  you  to  judge  those  who  are  within  the 
church?     God  will  judge  outsiders.    Remove  the  wicked 
from  among  you. 
The  If  Christ  is  preached  as  having  risen  from  the  dead,  how 

?afiing   is  it  that  some  of  you  say  that  there  is  no  resurrection  of 
reSii-  ^e  dead.     E  there  is  no  resurrection  of  the  dead,  then 
ingthe   Christ  did  not  rise;  and  if  Christ  did  not  rise,  then  our 
rection   preaching  has  been  in  vain  and  your  faith  also  is  vain.    We 
dead6     a^so  are  detected  bearing  false  witness  about  God,  because 
(i5i2-i»)  we  have  testified  concerning  God  that  he  raised  Christ, 
whom  he  did  not  raise,  if  after  all  the  dead  do  not  rise. 
For  if  the  dead  do  not  rise,  Christ  did  not  rise ;  and  if  Christ 
did  not  rise,  your  faith  is  futile ;  you  are  still  in  your  sins. 
Furthermore,   those   who   sleep  in   Christ  have  perished. 
If  we  have  only  a  hope  of  Christ  in  this  life,  we  are,  of  all 
men,  the  most  to  be  pitied. 
Christ's      But  Christ  in  reality  did  rise  from  the  dead.    He  was 
rectfon   tne  ^st  to  De  gathered  of  those  who  sleep ;  for  since  death 
t^e        came  through  man,  by  man  also  came  the  resurrection  of 
forsSF    the  dead.    Just  as  all  die  in  Adam,  so  shall  all  be  made 
(2o-28)      ^ve  -m  (3]^^.    But  each  in  his  own  order ;  Christ,  the  first 
to  be  gathered,  then  all  who  belong  to  Christ  at  his  arrival. 
Then  comes  the  end,  when  he  is  to  surrender  the  kingship 
to  God,  the  Father,  when  he  has  put  down  all  other  author- 
ity, rule  and  power,  for  he  must  reign  until  he  has  placed 

146 


CHRIST'S  RESURRECTION 

all  of  his  foes  under  his  feet.  Death  is  the  last  enemy  to 
be  overthrown,  for  God  hath  put  everything  under  his  feet. 
When  it  is  said  that  everything  has  been  put  under  him,  it 
plainly  excludes  him  who  putteth  everything  under  him. 
And  when  all  things  are  put  under  him,  then,  the  son  him- 
self will  be  put  under  him  who  subjected  everything  to  him, 
that  God  may  be  all  in  all. 

But  some  one  will  say,  how  can  the  dead  rise?    With  The 
what  kind  of  body  do  they  come  back?    Foolish  man!  SfS? 
What  you  yourself  sow  does  not  come  to  life  unless  it  dies ;  J^fjn 
and  what  you  sow  is  not  the  body  which  is  to  be,  but  a  mere   (35  38  «- 
grain  of  wheat  it  may  be,  or  some  other  seed.     God  giveth  **' 49) 
it  a  body  as  he  pleaseth,  even  to  each  kind  of  seed  a  body 
of  its  own.     So  it  is  with  the  resurrection  of  the  dead:  it 
is  sown  corruptible,  it  rises  incorruptible;  it  is  sown  in- 
glorious, it  rises  in  glory;  it  is  sown  in  weakness,  it  rises 
in  power;  it  is  sown  an  animate  body,  it  rises  a  spiritual 
body.    Thus,  as  we  have  borne  the  likeness  of  the  earthly 
man,   so  we  are  to  bear  the  likeness  of  the  heavenly 
man. 

This  I  tell  you,  brothers:  flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit  The 
the  Kingdom  of  God,  nor  can  the  corruptible  inherit  incor-  ™er0ry 
ruption.    Behold  I  tell  you  a  mystery:  we  shall  not  all  ^^ih 
sleep,  but  we  shall  all  be  changed  in  a  moment,  in  the  Christ 
twinkling  of  an  eye  at  the  last  trumpet  call.    For  the  trum-  (6068) 
pet  will  sound  and  the  dead  will  be  raised  incorruptible, 
and  we  shall  be  changed.    For  this  corruptible  body  must 
be  clothed  with  incorruption  and  this  mortal  body  clothed 
with  immortality.    But  when  this  corruptible  body  has  been 
clothed  with  incorruption,  and  this  mortal  body  clothed  with 
immortality,  then  the  words  of  the  scripture  will  be  ful- 
filled: 

Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory. 

O  Death,  where  is  your  victory? 

O  Death,  where  is  your  sting? 

Thanks  be  to  God  who  giveth  us  the  victory  through  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ!  Therefore,  my  beloved  brothers,  be 
firm,  immovable,  excel  at  all  times  in  the  work  of  the  Lord, 
knowing  that  your  work  in  the  Lord  is  never  in  vain  j 

147 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

The  With  regard  to  the  collection  for  the  saints,  you  must  do 

SSftor  just  as  I  directed  the  churches  in  Galatia.     On  the  first 

*^r  in  ^ay  °*  ^e  wee^>  *et  eacn  °*  y°u  Put  aside  whatever  gain 

jml-m  has  been  granted  him,  so  that  the  money  will  not  have  to 

(i1^?)     be  collected  when  I  come.    When  I  am  with  you  I  will  send 

credentials  to  those  whom  you  select,  to  bear  your  gracious 

gift  to  Jerusalem  and,  if  it  is  worth  while  for  me  to  go  too, 

they  will  accompany  me. 

Pauls        I  shall  come  to  you  after  I  go  through  Macedonia,  for  I 

puSEs6    am  going  to  pass  through  Macedonia.    Perhaps  I  will  spend 

jF 10*    some  time  with  you,  or  even  pass  the  winter,  that  you  may 

speed  me  forward,  wherever  I  am  going.    I  do  not  wish  to 

see  you  now  merely  in  passing,  for  my  hope  is  to  stay  some 

time  among  you  if  the  Lord  doth  permit.    If  Timothy  arrives, 

see  that  he  is  quite  at  home  among  you,  for  he  is  engaged 

in  the  Lord's  work,  even  as  I  am.    Therefore,  let  no  one 

slight  him,  but  send  him  on  his  way  in  peace  in  order  that 

he  may  come  to  me,  for  I  am  awaiting  him  along  with  the 

other  brothers.    As  for  our  brother,  Apollos,  I  begged  him 

most  earnestly  to  go  to  you  with  the  brothers,  but  it  was 

not  at  all  his  wish  that  he  should  come  now.    He  will  come, 

however,  when  he  has  a  good  opportunity. 

SSdlng       Watch,  stand  firm  in  the  faith,  be  men,  be  strong!    Let 

exhor-    all  that  you  do  be  done  in  love. 

tation 

(13,  14) 

Paul's  *»  Paul,  myself,  entreat  you  by  the  gentleness  and  con- 
dt  s  sideration  of  Christ — the  Paul  'who  is  humble  enough  to 
£?hfs     your  face,  when  he  is  with  you,  but  outspoken  enough  when 

letter       ^e  *S  awaV  ^rom  y0U  *        *  ^e&  °*  y°U  ^at  wnen  I  <*0  Come 

(1ier  that  you  will  not  compel  me  to  make  a  bold  display  of  my 
fo£)  confidence  with  which  I  am  determined  to  show  my  courage 
toward  certain  people  who  consider  that  we  act  in  accor- 
dance with  worldly  principles.  For  though  we  still  live  in 
the  world,  we  do  not  fight  with  worldly  weapons.  The 
weapons  of  our  warfare  are  not  worldly  weapons,  but  di- 
vinely strong  to  overthrow  fortresses,  overthrowing  theories 
and  every  stronghold  raised  up  against  the  knowledge  of 
God,  and  we  take  captive  every  project,  to  make  it  subject 
to  Christ.  We  are  ready  to  pass  judgment  upon  every  act 
of  disobedience,  when  once  your  submission  is  complete. 

148 


PLEADING  FOR  THE  LOYALTY  OF  THE  CORINTHIANS 

I  wish  you  could  have  put  up  with  a  little  foolishness  His 
on  my  part.    Do  bear  with  me,  for  I  feel  jealous  for  you,  g}|afo~r 
even  as  God  is  jealous.     I  betrothed  you  as  a  chaste  fhealt 
maiden,  to  present  you  to  your  one  husband,  Christ;  but  I  ofythey 
am  afraid  that,  even  as  the  serpent  with  its  craftiness  be-  SSms" 
guiled  Eve,  so  your  thoughts  are  being  seduced  from  a  d11-*) 
single  devotion  to  Christ,  for  you  bear  it  well  when  some 
one  comes  proclaiming  another  Jesus  whom  we  have  not 
proclaimed,  or  when  you  receive  another  Spirit  than  that 
which  you  have  received,  or  a  different  gospel  from  that 
which  you  have  already  welcomed !    For  I  consider  myself 
not  in  the  slightest  inferior  to  the  most  eminent  apostles! 
In  speech,  I  may  be  defective,  but  not  in  knowledge.    We 
have  in  every  way  made  that  fully  evident  to  you. 

Here  I  am  ready  to  visit  you  for  the  third  time ;  and  I  will  Plan 
not  burden  you,  for  I  desire  not  your  money,  but  you  your-  $sit 
selves;  for  children  are  not  under  obligations  to  store  up  gar- 
money  for  their  parents,  but  parents  for  their  children.  I  Tw. 
will  gladly  spend  all  I  have  and  be  utterly  spent  for  your  u) 
souls.  Am  I  to  be  loved  the  less  because  I  love  you  so  in- 
tensely? 

I  forewarned  you  and  now  warn  you  in  advance,  as  I  did  The 
on  my  second  visit  when  present  and  do  now  when  absent,  °,f  h£fc 
both  you  who  sinned  before  and  all  the  rest,  that  if  I  come  yj^J 
back  again,  I  will  spare  no  one,  since  you  seek  proof  that 
Christ  speaks  through  me — he  who  is  not  weak  toward  you 
but  powerful  in  you.    For  though  he  was  crucified  in  weak- 
ness, he  lives  by  the  power  of  God.    For  though  we  are 
weak  as  he  was  weak,  yet  with  him  we  shall  be  alive  toward 
you  by  the  power  of  God.    Test  yourselves  to  see  if  you  are 
in  the  faith;  examine  yourselves.    Do  you  not  know  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  in  you  or  else  you  are  failures?    For  this 
reason  I  am  writing  these  things  to  you  while  absent,  that 
when  I  do  come  I  may  not  have  to  deal  severely  with  you 
by  the  authority  which  the  Lord  hath  given  me,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  you  up  and  not  of  pulling  you  down.  saluta- 
tion in 

Paul's 

Paul,  an  apostle  of  Christ  Jesus  by  the  will  of  God,  and  fourth 
brother  Timothy  to  the  Church  of  God  at  Corinth  as  well  as  di 
to  all  the  saints  who  are  in  the  whole  of  Achaia:  Grace  and  f^ 

149 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

peace  to  you  from  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. 

iiianks-      Blessed  be  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
ffi?*    the  Father  of  tender  mercies  and  the  God  who  comforteth 
us  in  all  our  affliction,  so  that  we  are  able  to  comfort  those 
who  are  in  any  affliction,  by  the  comfort  with  which  we  our- 
selves are  comforted  by  God. 
Pauls        I  call  God  to  witness  against  my  soul  that  it  was  to  spare 
ences     you  that  I  did  not  revisit  Corinth.    I  decided  I  would  not 
fornix   come  to  you  again  to  bring  you  pain,  for  if  I  pain  you,  who 
visit      is  there  then  to  give  me  joy  except  the  very  people  I  am 
(23,2X"4)  paining?     And  I  write  this  to  you  in  order  that  when  I 
come,  I  may  not  receive  pain  from  those  who  ought  to  give 
me  joy,  being  assured  regarding  all  of  you  that  my  joy  is  a 
source  of  joy  to  you  all.    For  I  wrote  you  in  great  affliction 
and  misery  of  heart,  with  many  a  tear,  not  to  give  you  pain, 
but  in  order  that  you  might  know  how  my  heart  is  overflow- 
ing with  love  for  you. 
For-  If  a  certain  individual  has  caused  pain,  he  has  caused  it 

S2T      not  only  to  me,  but  in  some  degree  (that  I  may  not  exagger- 
S)i?e   ate)  to  all  of  you.    The  censure  from  the  majority  is  suf- 
tent       ficient  for  that  individual,  so  that,  on  the  contrary,  you 
fJnder    should  rather  now  forgive  and  comfort  him,  lest  he  be  over- 
(6 -1*)      whelmed  by  excessive  grief.    Therefore,  I  beg  of  you  to 
reinstate  him  in  your  love.    For  I  wrote  you  with  the  aim 
that  I  might  know  your  mind,  whether  you  were  absolutely 
obedient.    If  you  forgive  the  man,  I  will  forgive  him  also. 
Appeal       O   Corinthians,   our  mouth  is  unsealed  to  you!      Our 
conn-     heart  is  wide  open  for  you!    There  is  no  restraint  in  our 
f££™.     love ;  yet  you  restrained  your  feelings  for  us;  but  let  it  be  a 
7«)       fair  exchange.    I  speak  as  to  my  children,  Open  wide  your 
hearts  to  us.    Make  room  for  us.    We  have  wronged  no 
one,  ruined  no  one,  taken  no  selfish  advantage  of  anyone. 
I  speak,  not  in  order  to  condemn  you,  for  I  said  before  that 
you  are  our  very  heart,  whether  we  die  with  you  or  live  with 
you.    I  have  great  confidence  in  you;  great  is  my  boasting 
over  you.    I  am  filled  with  comfort.    I  am  overflowing 
with  delight  amidst  all  our  affliction. 
Now,  brothers,  we  would  have  you  know  the  grace  of 

150 


GENEROSITY  OF  THE   MACEDONIANS 

God,  which  has  been  given  to  the  churches  of  Macedonia,  The 
how  while   passing  through   a  most   trying  ordeal,   their  gJJ^"" 
boundless  joy  and  their  deep  poverty  have  overflowed  in  a  of  the 
flood  of  generous  liberality.     I  can  testify,  that  according  doS?" 
to  their  means,  and  even  beyond  their  means,  they  have  ^6> 
given  freely;  with  much  entreaty,  they  begged  us  for  the  •1S) 
favor  of  sharing  in  the  service  in  behalf  of  the  saints.    They 
have  also  done  more  than  we  hoped,  for  first  of  all  they 
gave  themselves  to  the  Lord  and  to  us  in  accordance  with 
the  will  of  God.    This  led  us  to  urge  Titus,  inasmuch  as  he 
had  been  the  one  who  had  commenced  the  work,  also  to 
complete  this  work  of  beneficence  among  you.    Indeed  it 
is  superfluous  for  me  to  write  to  you  about  this  service  to 
the  saints.    For  I  know  your  willingness,  on  account  of 
which  I  boasted  about  you  to  the  Macedonians,  saying  that 
Achaia  was  ready  last  year.    And  your  zeal  has  spurred  on 
the  majority  of  them. 

He  who  furnisheth  the  seed  for  the  sower  and  bread  to  The 
eat  will  supply  you  with  seed  and  multiply  it  and  will  increase  ^niii 
the  fruits  of  your  charity.     You  will  be  enriched  in  every  «g}jy 
way,  so  as  to  show  all  liberality  which  through  us  makes 
men  give  thanks  to  God.    For  the  service  rendered  by 
this  sacred  gift,  not  only  supplies  the  wants  of  the  saints, 
but  in  addition  causes  many  a  cry  of  thanksgiving  to  God. 
By  the  practical  proof  of  this  service  you  cause  God  to  be 
praised  for  the  fidelity  of  your  allegiance  to  the  gospel  of 
Christ  and  for  the  liberality  of  your  contribution  to  them 
and  to  all.     They  also  with  supplication  in  your  behalf  are 
bound  to  you  in  love  because  of  the  surpassing  grace  which 
God  has  bestowed  on  you.    Thanks  be  to  God  for  his  un- 
speakable gift! 

I.  Conditions  in  the  Church  at  Corinth  That  Called  Forth 
Paul's  Letters.  At  least  a  year  had  elapsed  since  Paul  had  con- 
cluded his  initial  work  at  Corinth.  From  I  Corinthians  16l  we  learn 
that  meantime  he  had  made  a  visit  to  the  Galatian  churches;  already  a 
strenuous  period  of  work  at  Ephesus  lay  behind  him.  Apollos,  the 
brilliant  Alexandrian  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist  and  later  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  had  labored  for  a  time  at  Ephesus,  together  with  Aquila 
and  Priscilla,  and  then  had  gone  on  to  Corinth  to  take  Paul's  place. 

151 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

When  I  Corinthians  was  written  he  had  returned  to  Paul  at  Ephesus. 
Notwithstanding  his  Greek  name,  Apollos  was  clearly  a  Jew  by  birth, 
learned  in  the  scriptures  of  his  race,  and  a  gifted  orator.  Alexandria, 
Tarsus,  Ephesus,  and  Rome  were  the  chief  centres  at  this  period  in 
which  the  culture  and  learning  of  the  East  and  West  mingled  and  found 
prominent  public  expression.  The  Jewish  community  at  Alexandria  was 
still  dominated  by  the  personality  and  teachings  of  the  famous  Jewish 
scholar  Philo,  many  of  whose  disciples  survived.  Here  Apollos  would 
be  trained  equally  in  Greek  and  Jewish  thought  and  in  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation  which  the  Jews  had  learned  from  the  Greeks. 
To  the  Greek  Christians  of  Corinth  Apollos  evidently  appealed  very 
strongly.  His  eloquence,  his  learning,  and  his  methods  of  interpre- 
tation fascinated  them  and  suggested  to  these  rather  ignorant,  un- 
cultured members  of  the  Christian  community  invidious  comparisons 
with  Paul  the  humble  tent-maker.  Even  though  Apollos  and  Paul 
were  in  heartiest  accord  and  recognized  no  rivalry,  as  is  clearly  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Paul  urged  Apollos  later  to  return  to  Corinth  (I  Cor. 
1612),  a  factious  spirit  broke  out  in  the  ranks  of  the  Greek  Christians 
at  the  commercial  metropolis  of  Achaia.  News  of  this  reached  Paul 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  themes  in  his  Corinthian  correspondence. 
The  Christians  of  Corinth  were  also  especially  exposed  and  susceptible 
to  the  social  immorality  which  characterized  the  life  of  that  ancient 
maritime  city.  The  case  of  incest  was  tolerated  even  within  the 
church  itself  and  the  prevailing  standard  of  morality  was  low.  Ques- 
tions of  church  discipline  and  of  individual  responsibility  also  agitated 
the  members  of  the  Christian  community.  To  Greeks  trained  to 
accept  Plato's  doctrine  of  spiritual  immortality,  the  Jewish  belief  in 
bodily  resurrection  and  of  a  final  judgment  day,  in  which  the  righteous 
should  rise  to  share  in  the  messianic  kingdom  with  those  still  living, 
presented  great  difficulties.  These  were  the  major  problems  which 
are  the  occasion  of  the  voluminous  correspondence  between  Paul  and 
the  church  which  he  first  planted  in  Achaia.  Apparently  he  received 
two  letters  from  them  and  himself  sent  four  to  them.  Twice  he  visited 
them.  Twice  he  was  informed  of  conditions  there  by  Christian  trav- 
ellers from  Corinth  and  twice  he  appears  to  have  despatched  Timothy 
to  them  with  direct  messages.  This  correspondence  represents  a  period 
of  intense  activity  and  apprehension  on  the  part  of  Paul  and  at  the 
same  time  reveals  with  remarkable  clarity  his  spirit  and  teachings. 

II.     Paul's  First  Letter  to  the  Corinthian  Christians.     In  I 
Corinthians  59  Paul  writes:  "In -my  letter  I  wrote  you  that  you  are 

152 


PAUL'S  FIRST  LETTER  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS 

not  to  associate  with  those  who  are  immoral."  From  this  reference  it 
is  clear  that  our  present  epistle  known  as  I  Corinthians  is  not  the 
first  in  Paul's  correspondence  with  the  Corinthians.  In  the  heart 
of  the  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  a  section  (614-?1)  which  is 
evidently  alien  to  its  present  context  and  begins:  "Avoid  all  unnatural 
ties  with  unbelievers.  What  have  righteousness  and  iniquity  in  com- 
mon or  how  can  light  associate  with  darkness?"  Through  six  verses 
he  emphasizes  the  importance  of  Christians  not  associating  with  those 
who  are  immoral.  It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  this  is  a  fragment 
of  the  missing  first  letter  to  which  Paul  refers.  It  and  the  evils  of  which 
it  speaks  probably  led  three  of  the  Corinthian  Christians,  Stephanus, 
Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus,  of  whom  Paul  speaks  in  I  Corinthians  1617, 
to  visit  him  in  Ephesus  and  to  lay  before  him  the  concrete  problems 
which  he  discusses  at  length  in  his  second  letter,  now  found  in  I  Co- 
rinthians. 

III.  Paul's  Second  Letter  to  the  Corinthians.  First  Corin- 
thians is  the  longest  and  in  many  ways  the  most  beautiful  letter 
which  Paul  has  bequeathed  to  us.  Here  is  pre-eminently  revealed 
the  pastor  dealing  with  the  definite  question  which  his  Corinthian 
converts  had  propounded  to  him  in  person  and  with  the  unfortunate 
conditions  which  had  arisen  in  Corinth  during  his  absence  and  which 
had  been  brought  to  his  attention  by  the  members  of  the  household 
of  a  certain  Christian  woman  by  the  name  of  Chloe.  His  broad  aim 
is  to  teach  the  Corinthian  Christians  how  they,  in  their  individual  and 
communal  life,  may  realize  the  ideal  of  Jesus.  The  structure  of  the 
letter  is  clearly  defined.  The  first  nine  verses  contain  his  formal 
greeting  and  the  rather  measured  note  of  thanksgiving  in  which  he 
refers  to  the  virtues  of  those  to  whom  he  was  writing.  Chapters 
l10-421  contain  a  kindly  but  sharp  rebuke  of  the  factious  tendencies 
of  the  Corinthians.  Here  Paul's  breadth  is  strikingly  illustrated. 
The  individual  leaders  and  their  early  doctrines  are  unimportant; 
loyalty  to  Christ  and  his  cross  are  alone  essential.  Here  he  contrasts 
the  Greek  philosophies  and  sophistries,  which  certain  of  the  Gentile 
Christians  of  Corinth  are  inclined  to  esteem  most  highly,  with  the 
simple  spiritual  message  of  the  Gospel  which  he  had  proclaimed.  Argu- 
ment, gentle  irony,  and  personal  appeal  are  here  united  in  Paul's  char- 
acteristic way.  In  5-7  he  deals  with  the  lax  moral  conditions  that 
prevailed  in  the  Corinthian  church  and  more  concretely  with  the 
special  case  of  incest  which  had  been  reported  to  him.  Here  and  in 
the  succeeding  chapters  Paul's  fundamental  principles  of  living  are 

153 


PAUL'S  CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  CORINTHIANS 

dramatically  set  forth.  In  81— ll1  he  defines  the  proper  Christian 
attitude  toward  idol  sacrifices  and  feasts.  In  112-1440  he  discusses 
questions  of  public  worship  and  the  relative  values  of  the  different  types 
of  religious  activity  then  prevalent  in  the  church.  Chapter  15  takes 
up  the  question  of  personal  immortality,  and  16  contains  Paul's  con- 
cluding instructions,  salutations,  and  benediction.  Paul  throughout 
these  burning  chapters  aims  to  lead  his  Corinthian  converts  to  look 
beyond  parties  and  teachers  and  doctrines  to  the  vital  spiritual  life 
within  the  individual,  which  is  the  essence  of  Christianity  and  of  all 
true  religion. 

IV.  PauPs  Third  Letter  to  the  Corinthians.  Students  have 
long  noted  the  dramatic  and  fundamental  contrast  in  spirit,  content, 
and  literary  style  between  the  first  nine  chapters  of  II  Corinthians 
and  the  concluding  four  chapters.  The  spirit  in  the  first  part  of  the 
epistle  is  that  of  thanksgiving  and  commendation;  in  the  second  part 
Paul  sometimes  ironically,  sometimes  appealingly,  expresses  his  sur- 
prise and  bitter  disappointment  at  the  attitude  of  those  to  whom  he 
is  writing.  The  glaring  inconsistencies  of  the  epistle  disappear  when 
we  recognize  that  10-13  probably  contain  a  part  of  Paul's  third  letter 
to  the  Corinthians  which  has  been  appended,  by  a  later  editor  or  as 
the  result  of  displacement,  to  the  fourth  and  final  letter  now  found  in 
1-9.  In  his  second  letter  Paul  speaks  of  Timothy's  impending  visit 
and  urges  the  Corinthians  to  receive  him  with  open  mind.  The  apos- 
tle also  expresses  the  hope  that  he  himself  may  visit  them  soon.  It  is 
evident  from  II  Corinthians  10-13  that  Timothy  did  visit  them  but 
met  with  a  most  unfavorable  reception,  for  Paul's  kindly  but  strong 
rebuke  of  their  party  strife  and  lax  morality  had  aroused  their  resent- 
ment. When  the  news  of  this  reached  Paul,  he  had  apparently  gone 
to  Corinth,  only  to  meet  with  rebuff.  It  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
most  tragic  moments  in  his  life.  He  could  endure  patiently  and  even 
joyously  the  perils  of  land  and  sea,  but  the  disloyalty  of  the  Corin- 
thian church  cut  him  to  the  heart.  Evidently  certain  Judaizers,  pos- 
sibly the  same  who  had  dogged  his  footsteps  in  Galatia,  had  reached 
Corinth  and  had  poisoned  the  minds  of  the  Corinthian  Christians, 
already  smarting  imder  Paul's  just  rebukes.  For  the  moment  they 
were  inclined  to  distrust  him  and  to  attribute  to  him  mercenary  mo- 
tives. One  of  the  bolder  wrong-doers  had  openly  insulted  him,  and  the 
better-minded  members  of  the  church  had  failed  to  rebuke  the  of- 
fender. Paul  evidently  left  Corinth  baffled  and  heart-sick.  As  has 
been  truly  said,  when  he  wrote  his  third  letter  to  the  Corinthians: 

154 


PAUL'S  THIRD  LETTER 

"He  was  fighting  with  his  back  to  the  wall."  Its  labored  style  speaks 
plainly  of  the  deep  emotion  that  almost  overmastered  him  as  he  wrote. 
Hesitatingly  and  yet  under  the  compulsion  of  a  great  necessity,  he 
casts  aside  his  modesty  and  boldly  asserts  his  apostolic  authority. 
But  gradually,  as  he  writes,  his  indignation  abates  and  the  irony  with 
which  he  opens  passes  into  open  appeal  and  a  tender  expression  of  the 
fatherly  love  which  he  felt,  even  toward  the  disloyal  Corinthians. 

V.  Paul's  Fourth  Letter  to  the  Corinthians.  The  letter  con- 
tained in  II  Corinthians  1-9  is  so  full  of  personal  detail  that  its  date 
and  setting  can  be  determined  with  great  assurance.  After  writing 
his  third  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  Paul  had  evidently  sent  Titus  to 
note  its  effect  upon  them  and  to  report  to  him.  With  keenest  ap- 
prehension he  awaited  this  report.  When  Titus's  return  was  delayed, 
Paul  went  to  Troas  and  then  on  to  Macedonia,  where  at  last  he  found 
him.  Titus's  report  removed  from  Paul's  shoulders  the  heavy  burden 
which  had  so  oppressed  him.  From  II  Corinthians  1-9  it  is  possible 
to  reconstruct  that  report.  Paul's  third  letter  had  evidently  aroused 
the  troubled  consciences  of  the  Corinthians  and  their  old  loyalty  to 
him  asserted  itself.  Inspired  by  the  good  news,  Paul  wrote  in  hot 
haste  this  fourth  letter  to  the  Corinthians.  It  opens  with  greetings 
in  l1,  2.  The  first  main  section  (l3-217)  is  an  explanation  of  his  personal 
plans  and  an  expression  of  his  joy  over  the  loyal  action  of  the  Co- 
rinthians. Chapters  3x-46  are  a  defense  of  his  teaching,  while  47-510 
contain  the  pathetic  justification  of  his  own  physical  weakness  and  of 
the  great  misfortunes  which  had  overtaken  him  and  which  in  the  eyes 
of  the  ignorant  were  still  regarded  as  evidences  of  divine  disfavor. 
Chapters  5n-610  contain  a  defense  of  his  methods  of  work.  In  611"13, 
72-16  is  found  a  joyous  song  of  thanksgiving,  prompted  by  the  love  and 
loyalty  of  the  Corinthians.  Chapters  8  and  9  contain  a  concluding 
plea  for  a  liberal  collection  in  behalf  of  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem. 
This  letter  is  one  of  the  most  personal  and  noble  epistles  ever  penned 
by  Paul.  It  is  full  of  deep  emotion  and  lofty  aspiration.  It  reveals 
with  remarkable  clarity  the  exalted  motives  which  inspired  him.  It 
is  the  convincing  proof  of  his  absolute  sincerity  and  his  deep  personal 
affection  for  the  men  whose  lives  he  was  seeking  to  transform.  Here 
the  spirit  of  Jesus  again  finds  expression  and  enables  even  the  reader 
in  this  far-away  age  to  appreciate  the  charm  which  drew  men  to  Paul 
and  made  his  words  a  miracle-working  force  in  their  lives. 


155 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 


§CLVm.    PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

The  If  one  of  you  has  a  grievance  against  another,  does  he 

ment    dare  to  go  to  law  before  sinful  pagan  judges  and  not  before 
SutST    *^e  saints?    Do  you  not  know  that  the  saints  are  to  sit  in 
be-        judgment  upon  the  world?    If  the  world  is  to  come  under 
chri?-    your  jurisdiction,  are  you  incapable  of  deciding  petty  ques- 
(fcor    tions?    Do  vou  not  know  mat  you  are  to  sit  in  judgment 
6»-«)    '  upon  angels,  to  say  nothing  of  the  things  of  this  life,  and 
yet,  when  you  have  things  of  this  life  to  decide,  do  you 
refer  them  to  the  judgment  of  men  who  are  of  no  account 
in  the  church?    I  speak  in  order  to  put  you  to  shame. 
Has  it  come  to  this  mat  there  is  not  one  wise  man  among 
you  who  is  able  to  decide  between  a  man  and  his  brother 
instead  of  one  brother  going  to  law  with  another,  and  that 
before  unbelievers? 
The  Therefore,  the  fact  that  you  have  lawsuits  with  one  an- 

onjti-y  other  is  convincing  evidence  of  a  defect  in  you.    Why  not 
gation    rather  let  yourself  be  wronged?    On  the  contrary,  you  in- 
tween    flict  injustice  and  practise  fraud,  and  that  upon  your  brothers. 
SS?"    Do  you  not  know  that  the  wicked  will  not  inherit  the  King- 
<7 10)       dom  of  God  ?  Be  not  deceived :  neither  the  immoral  nor  idol- 
aters, nor  adulterers,  nor  any  who  are  guilty  of  unnatural 
crimes,  nor  thieves,  nor  avaricious  people,  nor  the  drunken, 
nor  the  abusive,  nor  robbers,  will  inherit  the  Kingdom  of 
God. 
The  All  things  are  lawful  for  me,  but  all  things  are  not  profit- 

tSof  a°le  f°r  me«     All  things  are  lawful  for  me,  but  I  will  not 
Chris-    iet  anything  master  me.    Foods  are  for  the  stomach  and 
liberty    the  stomach  for  foods,  but  God  will  cause  the  one  and  the 
(1220)      other  to  perish.    The  body  is  not  for  immorality,  but  for 
the  Lord,  and  the  Lord  is  for  the  body.    Even  as  God 
raised  up  the  Lord,  so  he  will  also  raise  us  by  his  power. 
Do  you  not  know  that  your  bodies  are  members  of  Christ? 
Shall  I  then  take  away  the  members  of  Christ  and  devote 
them  to  a  harlot?    No,  indeed.    Do  you  not  know  that  he 
who  joins  himself  to  a  harlot  is  one  with  her  in  body  (for 
the  two,  it  is  said,  shall  become  one  flesh),  while  he  who 
joins  himself  to  the  Lord  is  one  with  him  in  spirit?    Shun 

156 


LIMITATIONS  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIBERTY 

immorality!  Every  other  sin  that  a  man  commits  is  out- 
side the  body,  but  the  immoral  man  sins  against  his  own 
body.  Do  you  not  know  that  your  body  is  the  temple  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  within  you,  which  you  have  received  from 
God,  and  that  you  are  not  your  own.  For  you  were  bought 
for  a  price.    Therefore,  glorify  God  with  your  body. 

For  married  people,  my  instructions  are — yet  not  mine  The 
but  the  Lord's — a  wife  is  not  to  separate  from  her  husband,  dSwce 
or  if  she  has  separated,  let  her  remain  single  or  be  recon-  (*"-") 
ciled  to  her  husband.  Also  a  husband  must  not  put  away 
his  wife.  To  other  people  I  say— I,  not  the  Lord— if  any 
brother  has  a  wife  who  is  not  a  believer  and  she  consents  to 
live  with  him,  let  him  not  put  her  away.  And  if  any  woman 
has  a  husband  who  is  not  a  believer  and  he  consents  to 
live  with  her,  let  her  not  put  her  husband  away.  For  the 
unbelieving  husband  is  consecrated  through  his  wife  and 
a  woman  who  is  not  a  believer  is  consecrated  through 
union  with  the  Christian  brother;  otherwise  your  children 
would  be  unholy  instead  of  being  holy,  as  they  now  are. 
If,  however,  the  unbeliever  is  determined  to  separate,  let 
him  do  so.  In  such  cases  the  Christian  brother  or  sister 
is  not  bound  as  a  slave.  God  has  called  you  to  a  life  of 
peace.  O  wife,  how  do  you  know  that  you  may  not  save 
your  husband?  O  husband,  how  do  you  know  that  you 
may  not  save  your  wife  ? 

Let  each  man  continue  in  the  condition  of  life  which  the  con- 
Lord  has  assigned  to  him,  just  as  when  God  called  him.  jgj^ 
Thus  I  laid  down  the  rule  to  all  the  churches.    Was  a  man  with 
already  circumcised  at  the  time  when  he  was  called?    Let  ?ot?s 
him  not  efface  the  marks  of  it.    Has  any  man  been  called  (17"24) 
when  he  was  uncircumcised  ?    Then  let  him  not  be  cir- 
cumcised.    Circumcision  is  nothing  and  uncircumcision  is 
nothing,  but  obedience  to  God's  commands  is  everything. 
Each  man  must  remain  in  the  condition  of  life  in  which  he 
was  when  he  was  called.  Were  you  a  slave  when  you  were 
called?    Do  not  mind  that;  but  if  you  are  able  to  get  free, 
make  use  of  the  opportunity.  But  a  slave,  when  he  is  called 
to  be  in  the  Lord,  is  a  freedman  of  the  Lord.    In  the  same 
way  a  free  man  who  is  called  is  a  slave  of  Christ,  for  you 
have  been  bought  for  a  price.    You  must  not  become  slaves 

157 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

to  men.    Brothers,  each  one  must  remain  with  God  in  the 
condition  in  which  he  was  when  he  was  called. 
con-  Now  as  to  food  which  has  been  sacrificed  to  idols.    'We 

tlonra"    know  about  this  for  we  all  possess  knowledge!'    Knowl- 
others*    e(*&e  Pu^s  UP>  ^ut  *ove  Guilds  UP-    Whoever  imagines  that 
scm-      he  has  some  knowledge  has  not  as  yet  attained  the  knowl- 
^8?.s4, 7-    edge  which  he   ought  to  have   attained.    But  if  anyone 
».i2.i3)    ioves  God,  that  man  is  known  by  him.    Now  in  regard  to 
food  which  has  been  offered  to  idols :  we  know  well  that  an 
idol  is  nothing  in  the  world  and  there  is  only  the  one  God. 
But  this  knowledge  is  not  shared  by  all.     Some  through 
their  relation  with  idols  even  now  eat  that  which  has  been 
sacrificed  to  idols  as  such,  and  their  conscience  being  weak 
is  polluted.    Food  itself  will  not  bring  us  any  nearer  to 
God,  nor  do  we  lose  anything  if  we  do  not  eat;  while,  if  we 
do  eat,  we  do  not  gain  anything.     But  take  care  lest  this 
liberty  of  yours  prove  a  stumbling  block  to  the  weak.    By 
thus    sinning   against   the    brothers    and   wounding   their 
weaker  consciences,  you  are  sinning  against  Christ.    There- 
fore if  such  food  causes  my  brother  to  fall,  I  will  never  eat 
it  again  as  long  as  I  live,  lest  I  should  cause  my  brother  to 
fall. 
Pauls        Do  you  not  know  that  those  who  perform  the  temple  rites 
Sod*      Set  tneu"  f°°d  from  the  temple  and  that  the  attendants  at 
prac-     the  altar  share  the  sacrifices?    In  the  same  way  the  Lord 
as  an     also  directed  that  those  who  proclaim  the  gospel  are  to 
(^S1)6  get  their  living  from  the  gospel.    But  I  have  not  availed 
myself  of  any  of  these  rights,  nor  do  I  now  write  in  order 
to  secure  any  of  these  rights  for  myself;  for  I  would  rather 
die  than  have  anyone  render  this  boast  of  mine  an  empty 
one.    For  if  I  go  on  preaching  the  gospel,  that  is  nothing  for 
me  to  boast  of,  for  the  necessity  is  imposed  upon  me.    Yes, 
woe  to  me  if  I  do  not  preach  the  gospel.     For  only  if  I  preach 
it  willingly,  do  I  receive  a  reward.     If  I  do  it  simply  because 
I  must,  it  only  means  that  I  have  a  stewardship  intrusted  to 
me.    How  then  do  I  get  a  reward?    In  that  I  preach  the 
gospel  free  of  charge,  that  I  refrain  from  using  my  full  rights 
as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel. 

For  though  I  am  free  from  all,  I  have  made  myself  the 
slave  of  all  in  order  to  win  the  more  converts.    To  the  Jews 

158 


PAUL'S  PRACTICE  AS  AN  APOSTLE 

I  have  become  like  a  Jew  in  order  to  win  Jews.    To  those  His 
under  the  law  I  have  been  as  if  I  were  under  the  law  in  S^, 
order  to  win  those  under  the  law.    To  those  outside  the  win  an 
law  I  have  become  as  one  outside  of  the  law — though  I  auen  y 
am  not  outside  the  law  of  God,  but  under  Christ's  law — in  (?,e^ 
order  that  I  may  win  those  outside  the  law.    To  the  weak 
I  have  become  as  weak  myself  in  order  to  win  over  the 
weak.    To  all  men  I  have  become  all  things  in  order  to  save 
some  in  all  of  these  ways.    And  I  do  all  of  these  things  for 
the  sake  of  the  gospel  in  order  that  I  may  share  in  it. 

Do  you  not  know  that  in  a  race,  though  all  run,  only  one  The 
receives  the  prize?  So  run  that  you  may  get  the  prize.  f£f7) 
Every  athlete  practises  restraint  in  all  ways;  but  while 
they  do  this  to  receive  a  fading  wreath,  we  do  it  for  the 
sake  of  one  that  will  not  fade.  Therefore,  I  thus  run  with 
no  uncertainty.  I  plant  my  blows  not  as  one  who  beats  the 
air;  rather  I  maul  and  master  my  body  lest  I,  after  preach- 
ing to  others,  might  myself  be  disqualified. 

So  then,  let  him  who  thinks  he  stands  securely  take  care  How  to 
lest  he  fall.    No  temptation  has  waylaid  you  that  has  not  Tt^_ 
come  to  man.     God,  indeed,  is  faithful  and  will  not  permit  Nation 
you  to  be  tempted  beyond  what  you  can  stand ;  but  when  the  (,012,13) 
temptation  comes,  he  will  also  provide  a  way  of  escape,  so 
that  you  will  be  able  to  bear  it. 

Whether  you  eat  or  drink  or  whatever  you  do,  do  all  to  com- 
the  glory  of  God.    Do  not  be  causes  of  stumbling  either  to  g^_ 
the  Jews  or  the  Gentiles  or  to  the  church  of  God.    Thus  I  cration 
seek  to  satisfy  all  men  in  all  points,  aiming  not  at  my  own  SnJce 
advantage  but  at  that  of  the  many  in  order  that  they  may  be  and  ^ 
saved.    Imitate  me,  just  as  I  imitate  Christ.  man 

As  the  human  body  is  one,  yet  has  many  members,  and  (31 33) 
all  the  members  form  one  body,  though  they  are  so  many,  0*.^ 
so  it  is  with  Christ.    For  by  one  Spirit  we  have  all  been  unity 
baptized  into  one  body,  whether  Jews  or  Greeks,  slaves  chriK 
or  freedmen.    We  have  all  been  nourished  by  one  Spirit.  b^h. 
For  even  the  human  body  does  not  consist  of  one  member  erhood 
but  many.    If  the  foot  were  to  say,  Because  I  am  not  the  (121220) 
hand,  I  do  not  belong  to  the  body,  that  would  not  make  it 
any  less  a  part  of  the  body.    If  the  ear  were  to  say,  Because 
I  am  not  the  eye,  I  do  not  belong  to  the  body,  that  would 

159 


(21-31) 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

not  make  it  any  less  a  part  of  the  body.  If  all  the  body 
were  an  eye,  where  would  the  hearing  be  ?  If  all  the  body 
were  an  ear,  where  would  the  smell  be  ?  But  as  it  is,  God 
hath  placed  the  members  in  the  body,  each  as  he  pleased. 
If  they  are  all  but  one  member,  where  would  the  body  be  ? 
As  it  is,  there  are  many  members  and  one  body. 
Each  The  eye  cannot  say  to  the  hand,  I  have  no  need  of  you, 
Sem-  nor  again  the  head  to  the  feet,  I  have  no  need  of  you.  No, 
totue  **  *s  decidedly  otherwise.  Even  those  members  of  the  body 
whole  which  are  considered  weaker  are  indispensable,  and  the 
parts  which  we  deem  less  honorable,  we  invest  with  special 
honor,  while  our  indecorous  parts  receive  a  special  atten- 
tion which  it  is  not  necessary  to  pay  to  our  more  decorous 
parts.  Rather,  God  hath  built  up  the  body  and  bestowed  a 
special  attention  on  the  parts  that  lacked,  so  that  there 
might  be  no  disunion  in  the  body  but  that  the  parts  might 
have  a  common  concern  for  one  another.  And  if  one  mem- 
ber suffers,  all  members  suffer  with  it.  If  one  member  is 
honored,  all  the  members  share  its  honor.  You,  indeed, 
are  Christ's  body  and  individually  members  of  it.  Thus 
God  hath  set  people  in  the  church,  first  as  apostles,  second 
as  prophets,  third  as  teachers,  then  workers  of  miracles, 
then  those  who  are  able  to  cure  diseases,  helpers,  admin- 
istrators and  those  who  speak  in  tongues  of  various  kinds. 
Are  all  apostles  ?  Are  all  prophets  ?  Are  all  teachers  ?  Are 
all  workers  of  miracles?  Are  all  able  to  cure  diseases? 
Are  all  able  to  speak  in  tongues?  Are  all  able  to  interpret? 
But  always  seek  the  highest  gifts.  And  now  I  will  point 
out  to  you  a  still  higher  way. 

The  Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels, 

preme  But  have  not  love, 

fff-  I  am  become  like  sounding  brass  or  a  clanging  cymbal. 

all-")  Though  I  have  the  gift  of  prophecy, 

And  know  all  mysteries  and  all  knowledge, 
And  have  such  faith  that  I  can  remove  mountains, 
But  have  not  love,  I  am  nothing. 
Though  I  distribute  all  my  goods  to  the  poor, 
And  give  up  my  body  to  be  burned, 
But  have  not  love,  it  profits  me  nothing. 
160 


way 

(4-7) 


LOVE'S  WAY 

Love  is  patient  and  kind,  *£Ze's 

Love  knows  no  jealousy, 

Love  is  neither  boastful  nor  conceited, 

It  is  not  shameless  nor  self-seeking, 

It  is  never  provoked  nor  resentful, 

It  rejoices  not  in  evil, 

But  rejoices  in  the  truth. 

It  covers  all  faults, 

It  believes  all  things, 

It  hopes  all  things, 

It  endures  all  things. 

Love  never  fails;  its 

As  for  prophecies,  they  shall  be  set  aside,  S11^ 

As  for  tongues,  they  shall  cease,  g^r 

As  for  knowledge,  it  shall  be  set  aside,  nent 

For  we  know  in  part,  acter 

And  we  prophesy  in  part,  <8"13> 

But  when  that  which  is  perfect  comes, 

That  which  is  imperfect  shall  be  set  aside. 

When  I  was  a  child, 

I  talked  as  a  child, 

I  thought  as  a  child, 

I  argued  as  a  child, 

But  now  that  I  am  become  a  man, 

I  have  put  away  childish  things. 

For  now  we  look  in  a  mirror  and  are  puzzled, 

But  then  we  will  meet  face  to  face. 

Now  I  know  only  in  part, 

But  then  I  will  fully  know, 

Even  as  I  have  been  fully  known. 

And  so  these  three  abide: 

Faith,  hope,  and  love. 

But  the  greatest  of  these  is  love. 

Follow  after  love  and  zealously  seek  spiritual  gifts,  but  oSt^of 
most  of  all  that  you  may  prophesy.    For  he  who  speaks  in  S-yph" 
tongues  is  not  speaking  to  men  but  to  God,  for  no  one  un-  jf-1^ 
derstands  him.    He  is  speaking  of  divine  secrets  in  the  ecstasy 
Spirit.    But  he  who  prophesies,  speaks  to  men  that  which  is  &!£») 

161 


17-40) 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

edifying,  encouraging,  and  comforting.  He  who  speaks  with 
tongues  edifies  himself,  but  he  who  prophesies,  edifies  the 
church.  I  would  like  to  have  you  all  speak  with  tongues, 
but  I  would  prefer  to  have  you  prophesy.  The  man  who 
prophesies  is  superior  to  him  who  speaks  with  tongues — 
unless,  indeed,  the  latter  interprets,  so  that  the  church  re- 
ceives edification.  Therefore,  let  a  man  who  speaks  in 
tongues  pray  that  he  may  be  able  to  interpret  it.  Thank 
God,  I  speak  in  tongues  more  than  any  of  you;  but  in  church 
I  would  rather  say  five  words  with  my  own  mind,  in  order 
that  I  might  instruct  other  people,  than  ten  thousand  in 
tongues. 
The  What  then,  brothers  ?    Whenever  you  meet  together  each 

IJJri?  has  something  to  contribute:  a  song  of  praise,  a  teaching, 
*gj*  a  revelation,  a  speaking  in  tongues  or  an  interpretation; 
(M-m.  Dut  let  all  things  be  for  edification.  If  there  is  speaking  in 
tongues,  let  two  or  at  the  most  three  speak,  one  at  a  time. 
Also  let  someone  interpret.  If  there  is  no  interpreter, 
let  the  speaker  keep  quiet  in  church  and  speak  to  himself 
and  God.  Let  only  two  or  three  prophets  speak,  and  let 
the  rest  use  their  judgment.  If  a  revelation  comes  to  one 
who  is  seated,  let  the  first  speaker  be  silent.  You  can  all 
prophesy,  one  after  another,  in  order  that  all  may  learn 
and  all  be  encouraged,  for  the  spirits  of  the  prophets  are 
subject  to  the  prophets,  for  God  is  not  a  God  of  disorder  but 
of  harmony.  If  anyone  considers  himself  to  be  a  prophet 
or  gifted  with  the  Spirit,  let  him  recognize  that  what  I 
write  to  you  is  a  command  of  the  Lord.  If  anyone  ignores 
this,  let  him  be  ignored.  To  sum  up,  my  brothers :  zealously 
seek  to  prophesy  and  do  not  check  speaking  with  tongues; 
but  let  everything  be  done  in  a  decorous  and  orderly 
manner. 

I.  Paul's  Teachings  Regarding  the  Christian's  Duty  in  His 
Economic  Relations.  The  heart  of  Paul's  second  letter  to  the 
Corinthian  Christians  (now  found  in  I  Cor.)  contains  detailed  an- 
swers to  certain  practical  questions  which  they  had  raised  in  a  letter 
that  Paul  had  recently  received.  In  the  light  of  the  answers  it  is 
possible  to  determine  the  character  of  these  questions.  Each  question 
and  its  answer  must  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  its  peculiar  Corin- 

162 


A  CHRISTIAN'S  DUTY  IN  HIS  ECONOMIC  RELATIONS 

thian  background.  Corinth,  because  of  its  geographical  position  and 
resulting  commercial  activity,  was  the  scene  of  constant  and  doubt- 
less bitter  litigation.  This  tendency  was  intensified  by  the  mixed 
character  of  its  population.  After  its  destruction  by  the  Romans 
Julius  Caesar  had  recolonized  it  with  Italians  and  dispossessed  Greeks. 
Both  of  these  races,  and  especially  the  Greeks,  were  given  to  quarrels 
and  lawsuits,  and  the  population  of  Corinth  largely  consisted  of  the 
pioneer  spirits  who  had  settled  there,  or  their  descendants.  Evidently 
the  Corinthian  Christians  could  not  quickly  throw  off  their  inheritance, 
especially  in  the  contentious  atmosphere  in  which  they  lived.  Ap- 
parently the  question  raised  by  the  leaders  of  the  Corinthian  church 
was  whether  disputes  between  Christians  should  be  referred  to  the 
Roman  courts.  Paul  answered:  "No."  He  argued  that  certainly 
there  was  enough  justice  and  legal  insight  within  the  Christian  com- 
munity to  settle  all  petty  disputes.  He  also  called  their  attention  to 
their  belief  that  the  Christians,  as  heirs  to  the  promises  originally  given 
to  the  Jewish  race,  were  ultimately  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  the  heathen. 
This  belief  is  clearly  one  of  Paul's  Jewish  inheritances,  and  yet  back  of 
it  lies  the  great  fact  that,  inasmuch  as  the  true  Christians  embodied 
the  higher  principles  of  their  Master,  the  injustice  and  crime  of  the 
Gentile  world  were  to  be  revealed  by  comparison  with  the  righteous 
and  pure  lives  of  Jesus'  followers.  This  teaching,  however,  was  only 
preliminary  to  Paul's  more  fundamental  treatment  of  the  question. 
His  ultimate  argument  rested  upon  Jesus'  law  of  love.  He  who  de- 
frauds or  wrongs  another,  or  even  entertains  hate  against  another, 
thereby  excludes  himself  from  participating  in  God's  rule  in  the  world, 
for  such  acts  and  feelings  are  evidence  that  God  is  not  ruling  in  his 
life.  If  Jesus'  principle  of  considering  first  the  best  interests  of  the 
other  is  applied,  the  very  causes  of  lawsuits  are  removed.  The  exis- 
tence of  such  lawsuits,  therefore/is  evidence  that  they  have  reverted 
to  the  old  condition  from  which  Paul's  preaching  and  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  had  temporarily  lifted  them.  Thus,  by  kindly  irony,  plain  logic, 
and  an  appeal  to  the  lofty  social  ideals  of  Jesus,  Paul  endeavored  to 
lift  the  ignorant  and  sorely  tempted  Corinthian  Christians  to  the  high 
level  of  social  living  demanded  by  their  Master. 

II.  Paul's  Advice  Regarding  Sex  Questions  and  Divorce. 
It  was  inevitable  that  insistent  sex  problems  should  come  to  the  fore- 
front in  ancient  Corinth.  The  city  was  steeped  in  social  immorality. 
We  are  told  that  in  the  great  temple  of  Venus,  which  stood  on  its 
acropolis,  there  were  to  be  found  one  thousand  courtesans.    Gross 

163 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

immorality  stalked  abroad  under  the  guise  of  religion.  There  is  little 
wonder  that  Paul  said  with  vehemence  to  his  Corinthian  converts: 
"Shun  immorality."  Licentious  feasts  and  immoral  practices  con- 
fronted and  allured  them  at  every  turn.  This  deadly  leaven  was  even 
working  within  the  Christian  community  itself.  Some  of  its  members 
were  interpreting  Paul's  own  words,  "All  things  are  lawful  for  me," 
as  an  excuse  for  mere  license.  They  also  insidiously  urged  that,  as 
it  was  right  to  gratify  the  appetite  for  food,  so  also  the  grosser 
appetites.  With  his  usual  skill,  Paul  met  this  seductive  reasoning. 
"Yes,"  he  declared,  "all  things  may  be  lawful,  but  all  things  are  not 
good."  Waving  aside  all  appeal  to  the  Jewish  or  Roman  law,  he  de- 
clared that  the  analogy  drawn  between  the  bodily  appetites  was  not 
valid.  The  body  is  not  for  self-gratification  but  for  the  glorification 
of  God.  It  is  the  dwelling-place  of  God's  Spirit.  Social  immorality 
means  the  pollution  of  the  body,  the  lowering  of  the  individual  to  the 
level  of  the  harlot,  and  hence  the  destroying  of  the  seat  of  the  spiritual 
life.  The  figure  which  he  employs  to  crystallize  this  fundamental 
teaching  was  especially  effective  with  the  Greek  Christians  at  Cor- 
inth. The  glory  of  Greece  and  of  Corinth  was  its  temples.  The 
temple  was  the  symbol  of  the  abiding  presence  of  the  Deity.  For 
centuries  among  all  ancient  peoples  its  sanctity  had  been  jealously 
guarded  by  laws  and  institutions.  Therefore,  when  Paul  declared 
that  the  human  body  was  the  temple  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  he  set  forth 
in  a  way  never  to  be  forgotten  one  of  the  most  fundamental  teachings 
of  Christianity. 

Paul  answers  questions  of  social  morality  in  the  light  of  the  peculiar 
conditions  existing  in  Corinth.  He  nowhere  suggests  that  he  is  laying 
down  universal  rules  for  the  Christian  world.  On  only  one  point  is 
he  absolutely  certain  and  that  is  regarding  divorce  and  remarriage. 
Here  he  reiterates  in  clearest  terms  Jesus'  command,  as  recorded  in 
Mark  109"12.  No  husband  or  wife  is  to  break  the  marriage  bond  and 
remarry  another.  The  wife  may  separate  from  her  husband  for  suf- 
ficient grounds,  but  is  to  remain  single.  On  his  own  authority  Paul 
advises  Christians  married  to  unbelievers  not  to  separate.  If  the  un- 
believing partner  insists  upon  separation,  Paul  grants  that  the  Chris- 
tian brother  or  sister  is  thereby  freed  from  the  marriage  bond;  but  in 
the  same  breath  he  earnestly  exhorts  all  Christian  husbands  and  wives 
to  spare  no  effort  to  save  their  unbelieving  partners.  The  entire  aim 
in  Paul's  teaching  is  to  preserve  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  relation 
even  in  the  most  desperate  cases. 

164 


MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE 

In  his  advice  to  the  Corinthian  Christians  Paul  undoubtedly  reveals 
a  slightly  ascetic  tendency  which  is  one  of  the  chief  bases  of  mediaeval 
monasticism  and  similar  modern  movements.  He  frankly  states,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  not  on  the  authority  of  Jesus,  but  simply  to  insure  the 
freedom  of  the  individual  Christians  in  the  Corinthian  church  and  to 
"  secure  decorum  and  concentration  upon  a  life  of  devotion  to  the 
Lord"  (725, 35).  He  also  says  that  the  chief  reason  why  he  counselled 
those  who  are  able  to  remain  unmarried  is  the  distress  that  he  deems 
imminent  and  because  he  believes  the  interval  until  Christ  comes  again 
is  short.  At  the  same  time  he  does  not  forbid  marriage  nor  say  that 
it  is  in  any  sense  evil.  In  Ephesians  521"23  we  have  his  true  convic- 
tions regarding  marriage  expressed  under  more  normal  conditions.  He 
there  uses  the  figure  of  the  marriage  relation  to  describe  Christ's  in- 
timate relation  to  the  church.  He  reaffirms,  as  did  Jesus  (in  Mark 
109),  its  divine  foundation  as  set  forth  in  Genesis  224.  Far  from  con- 
demning it,  he  simply  endeavors  to  make  its  bonds  so  strong  that 
nothing  can  sever  them.  He  exhorts  all  wives  to  reverence  and  be 
subject  to  their  husbands.  Even  though  Paul  lacks  Jesus'  supremely 
chivalrous  attitude  toward  woman,  he  does  assert  in  Galatians  d2* : 
"There  is  no  room  for  slave  or  freeman,  there  is  no  room  for  male  and 
female;  you  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus."  To  his  exhortation  to  wives 
in  Ephesians  5  (which  reflects  his  oriental  conception  of  woman)  he 
adds  the  ringing  command  to  husbands:  "Let  every  man  of  you  love 
his  wife  as  himself."  In  I  Corinthians  73«  4  he  also  places  the  intimate 
obligations  of  the  husband  to  his  wife  and  of  the  wife  to  her  husband 
on  an  absolute  equality.  Here  again  we  recognize  the  direct  reflection 
of  Jesus'  absolute  democracy  and  knightly  chivalry  which  have  ex- 
alted woman  to  her  rightful  place. 

III.  Paul's  Practical  Application  of  Jesus'  Law  of  Love. 
The  detailed  problems  of  the  tempted  and  perplexed  Corinthian 
Christians  precipitated  some  of  Paul's  noblest  and  most  practical 
teachings.  One  of  these  questions  was:  "Shall  we  eat  food  that  has 
been  offered  to  heathen  idols?"  It  is  evident  that  much  of  the  food, 
and  especially  the  meat  thus  offered,  was  later  exposed  for  sale  in  the 
public  markets  of  Corinth.  Hence  it  was  almost  impossible  for  the 
Christians  to  be  sure  that  any  food  which  they  might  buy  had  not 
been  thus  polluted.  This  insistent  question  had  evidently  developed 
two  parties  in  the  Corinthian  church.  One  echoed  Paul's  teachings 
and  asserted:  "We  all  possess  knowledge;  belief  is  the  essential  thing. 
Mere  ceremonial  questions  are  entirely  unimportant.    As  long  as  our 

165 


PAUL'S  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

faith  is  clear  and  true,  it  makes  no  difference  what  we  eat."    The  other 
party— possibly  the  Cephas  party— had  not  yet  broken  away  from 
their  traditional  regard  for  ceremonial  distinctions.     Obviously  the 
more  broad-minded  Corinthian  Christians  found  great  difficulty  in 
satisfying  the  demands  of  these  two  antithetic  positions.     Paul  meets 
the  situation  in  his  characteristic  practical  way.     "Yes,"  he  declared, 
"knowledge  is  all  right  but  it  puffs  up.     There  is  a  higher  principle 
and  that  is  love,  for  it  builds  up."     Here  again  he  used  a  word  which 
appealed  with  peculiar  power  to  the  Greek  mind.     To  build  was  their 
dominant  ambition  and  genius.     Knowledge,  Paul  declares,  is  indi- 
vidualistic but  love  is  social  and  constructive.     Thus  early  in  his  epistle 
he  strikes  that  lofty  note  which  forever  immortalizes  it.     His  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  love  is  as  clear  as  it  is  convincing.     It  is  the 
guide  of  individual  liberty.     Liberty  and  knowledge  thus  guided  by  love 
will  never  permit  a  brother  to  ride  roughshod  over  the  conscientious 
scruples  of  a  fellow  Christian.     In  eating  food  offered  to  idols,  there- 
fore, each  man  will  be  governed  not  only  by  his  own  conception  of 
what  is  right  but  by  the  effect  of  his  act  upon  his  less  enlightened 
brothers.     Back  of  Paul's  teachings  lay  his  own  life  and  example, 
which  he  repeatedly  cites  with  great  effectiveness.     Forgetting  his 
own  individualistic  point  of  view  and  selfish  wishes,  he  had  become  all 
things  to  all  men  to  win  them  to  Christ.     Again  adopting  a  figure  very 
dear  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  long  famous  for  its  Isthmian  games, 
he  urges  the  Corinthian  Christians  to  keep  this  high  goal  ever  in  view 
and,  like  trained  athletes,  make  everything  else  subservient  to  attain- 
ing it.     At  the  conclusion  of  this  discussion  stands  Paul's  great  social 
confession  of  faith:  "Thus  I  seek  to  satisfy  all  men  in  all  points,  aiming 
not  at  my  own  advantage  but  at  that  of  the  many  that  they  may  be 
saved."     In  this  practical  way  Paul  interpreted  by  example,  as  well 
as  by  word,  Jesus'  supreme  command:  "Do  to  others  as  you  would 
have  them  do  to  you." 

IV.  "The  Body  of  Christ.' ■  In  setting  forth  his  social  teach- 
ings, Paul  employed  a  figure  already  used  by  the  Stoic  philosophers. 
They,  however,  spoke  of  all  humanity  as  one  body.  Paul  had  in  mind, 
when  he  used  this  pregnant  phrase  "the  Body  of  Christ,"  the  collec- 
tive group  of  Christian  believers.  It  was  the  objective  social  realiza- 
tion of  Jesus'  ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  It  recognized  that  in 
this  more  ideal  social  group  each  had  his  own  peculiar  gift  and  task. 
If  one  member  suffers,  all  the  members  share  his  suffering.  As  each 
contributes  faithfully  to  the  rest,  the  whole  body  prospers.     The 

166 


THE  BODY  OF  CHRIST 

fidelity  of  each  individual  member  is,  therefore,  essential  to  the  welfare 
of  the  whole.  Hence  each  individual  gift  must  be  consecrated  to  the 
common  social  good.  It  was  from  this  higher  vantage-point  that  Paul 
approached  the  problems  presented  by  the  jealousy  between  the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  Corinthian  church  and  the  heartburns  caused 
by  the  fact  that  some  appeared  to  possess  higher  spiritual  gifts  than 
others.  It  is  evident  from  his  statements  that  the  intellectual  and 
emotional  life  of  that  church  was  intense.  Paul  recognized  the  danger 
that  it  might  become  merely  individualistic,  merely  emotional,  and 
therefore  shallow.  The  picture  which  he  gives  of  its  life  is  exceedingly 
illuminating.  In  his  recapitulation  he  places  first  the  more  intellectual 
gifts:  the  power  to  speak  words  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  by  the 
Spirit;  second,  the  gift  of  faith  and  the  corresponding  power  of  heal- 
ing; third,  the  more  intuitive  gift  of  prophecy,  which  is  evidently  here 
used  in  the  sense  of  preaching  and  exhorting;  and,  fourth,  the  uncon- 
scious gift  of  tongues  or  ecstatic  utterance  and  the  power  of  interpret- 
ing the  meaning  of  these  emotional  ejaculations.  Each,  Paul  declares, 
is  inspired  by  the  same  divine  Spirit.  Each  is  of  value  simply  as  it 
is  made  to  conserve  the  common  good.  The  one  supreme  aim  must 
be  the  edification,  that  is,  the  building  up  of  the  Christian  body. 

V.  Paul's  Immortal  Hymn  in  Praise  of  Love.  It  was  while 
Paul  was  struggling  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  motive  that 
should  lie  back  of  these  various  expressions  of  the  religious  life  that 
there  dawned  upon  him  the  immortal  principle  which  is  crystallized 
in  his  matchless  hymn  in  praise  of  love.  It  is  one  of  his  wonderful 
digressions,  and  yet  it  was  the  culmination  of  all  of  his  thinking  in  the 
early  part  of  the  epistle  and  the  embodiment  of  his  own  life  and  expe- 
rience. He  calls  it  the  still  higher  way  in  which  these  spiritual  gifts 
are  to  be  used.  With  a  remarkable  breadth  and  insight  he  declares 
that  all  those  gifts  that  were  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  early  church, 
and  even  the  most  passionate  self-sacrificing  devotion,  were  absolutely 
useless  unless  inspired  and  guided  by  brotherly  love.  Then  follows 
the  familiar  description  of  the  characteristics  of  love's  way  in  I  Cor- 
inthians 134"7.  Its  background  is  the  personal  ambitions,  the  jealousy, 
the  self-glorification,  the  backbiting,  the  factiousness,  and  the  dis- 
couragement of  the  Corinthian  Christians.  Clearly  Paul  sees  the 
intellectual  and  moral  perils  that  confront  them.  Only  as  they  are 
lifted  into  the  higher  levels  of  faith  and  feeling  can  they  hope  to  realize 
the  ideals  which  he  set  before  them.  Childish,  indeed,  seemed  their 
bickerings.     Like  a  father,  he  yearned  to  lead  them  on  from  imper- 

167 


TAWS  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIVING 

fection  to  perfection,  to  teach  them  step  by  step  until  they  might  at- 
tain a  perfect  vision  of  truth.  In  meeting  all  these  universal  needs,  he 
declared  that  not  human  knowledge  but  faith  and  hope  and  love  were 
eternal  and  invincible;  yet  the  greatest  of  all  was  love. 

§  CLIX.    PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

Paul  at      When  Priscilla  and  Aquila  reached  Ephesus,  Paul  left 
^She"    them  there,  but  he  went  into  the  synagogue  and  argued 
(Acts     wjth  the  Jews,  who  asked  him  to  stay  for  a  longer  time, 
but  he  would  not  consent.    Instead,  taking  leave  of  them, 
he  said,  I  will  come  back  to  you,  if  it  be  the  will  of  God. 
Then  sailing  from  Ephesus  and  reaching  Caesarea,  he  went 
up  to  salute  the  church  and  then  travelled  down  to  An- 
tioch.    After  spending  some  time  there  he  went  off  on  a 
journey  through  the  Galatian  and  Phrygian  region,  strength- 
ening all  the  disciples. 
Apoi-         Meanwhile  a  Jew  by  the  name  of  Apollos  came  to  Ephe- 
Ephi    sus.    He  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  a  man  of  culture, 
AchSa   stronS  m  ^s  knowledge  of  the  scriptures.    He  had  been 
(24C-2s^a  instructed  in  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  he  preached  zeal- 
ously and  taught  accurately  about  Jesus,  though  all  the 
baptism  he  knew  was  that  of  John.    He  began  to  speak 
boldly  in  the  synagogue;  but  after  Priscilla  and  Aquila 
listened  to  him  they  took  him  home  and  explained  more 
accurately  to  him  the  way  of  God.    And  as  he  wished  to 
cross  over  to  Achaia,  the  brothers  wrote  urging  the  dis- 
ciples there  to  welcome  him.    And  on  his  arrival  he  ren- 
dered great  service  to  those  who  by  God's  grace  had  be- 
lieved, for  he  powerfully  and  publicly  refuted  the  Jews, 
showing  from  the  scripture  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah. 
Dis-  It  was  while  Apollos  was  in  Corinth  that  Paul,  after  pass- 

SfPiohii  mg  through  the  inland  districts,  came  to  Ephesus  and  found 
|t  he     there  certain  disciples  to  whom  he  said,  Did  you  receive 
sus  e"     the  Holy  Spirit  when  you  believed?    No,  they  replied,  we 
(1917)    have  not  even  heard  that  there  is  a  Holy  Spirit.    Then 
he  said,  In  what  were  you  baptized?    They  replied,  In 
John's  baptism.    John,  said  Paul,  baptized  with  a  baptism 
of  repentance,  telling  the  people  that  they  should  believe 
him  who  was  to  come  after  him,  that  is  in  Jesus.    When 
they  heard  this,  they  had  themselves  baptized  in  the  name 

168 


DISCIPLES  OF  JOHN  AT  EPHESUS 

of  the  Lord  Jesus.  And  after  Paul  laid  his  hands  on  them, 
the  Holy  Spirit  came  upon  them,  and  they  began  speak- 
ing with  tongues  and  prophesying.  They  were  in  all  about 
twelve  men. 

Then  Paul  entered  the  synagogue  and  for  three  months  Pauls 
spoke  fearlessly,  arguing  and  persuading  people  about  the  ™ethod 
Kingdom  of  God.    But  as  some  grew  stubborn  and  dis-  work 
obedient,  defaming  the  way  in  the  presence  of  the  multi-  Epne- 
tude,  he  left  them,  withdrew  the  disciples,  and  continued  s(£f0) 
his  argument  every  day  from  eleven  to  four  in  the  lecture 
room  of  Tyrannus.     This  continued  for  two  years,  so  that 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Asia,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks,  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord. 

God  also  worked  no  ordinary  miracles  by  means  of  Paul,  Mir- 
so  that  even  towels  or  aprons  which  he  had  used  were  JJ^8 
carried  to  the  sick  and  they  were  delivered  from  their  dis-  formed 
eases  and  evil  spirits  came  out  of  them.     Certain  travelling  Paul 
Jewish  exorcists  also  attempted  to  pronounce  the  name  of  (u  20) 
the  Lord  Jesus  over  those  who  had  evil  spirits,  saying,  I 
adjure  you  by  the  Jesus  whom  Paul  preaches.    The  seven 
sons  of  a  certain  Sceva,  a  Jewish  high  priest,  were  doing 
this;  but  the  evil  spirit  answered  and  said,  Jesus  I  know 
and  Paul  I  know,  but  who  are  you?    And  the  man  in  whom 
was  the  evil  spirit,  springing  at  them,  overpowered  two  of 
them  and  treated  them  with  such  violence  that  they  rushed 
out  of  the  house   stripped  and  wounded.    This  became 
known  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Ephesus,  Jews  as  well  as 
Greeks;  and  awe  fell  on  them  all,  and  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  was  magnified.     Many  believers  also  came  to 
confess  and  declare  what  they  had  done.     And  numbers 
who  practised  magic  arts  collected  their  books  and  burned 
them  in  the  presence  of  Paul.    When  they  added  up  their 
value  they  found  that  they  were  worth  about  ten  thousand 
dollars.    Thus  the  word  of  the  Lord  mightily  increased  and 
prevailed. 

After  these  events  had  transpired  Paul  resolved  in  the  Paul's 
spirit  to  travel  through  Macedonia  and  Achaia  to  Jerusalem,  jS^Sj 
saying,  After  I  get  there  I  must  see  Rome.     So  he  sent 
two  of  his  assistants  to  Macedonia,  Timothy  and  Erastus, 
while  he  himself  stayed  on  for  a  while  in  Asia. 

169 


PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

The  It  was  about  that  time  that  no  small  commotion  arose 

SSth's  over  the  way.  For  a  silversmith  by  the  name  of  Deme- 
attack  trius,  by  making  silver  shrines  of  Artemis,  brought  rich 
Paul1  profit  to  his  workmen.  Calling  these  together,  along  with 
(23  40)  the  workmen  who  followed  similar  trades,  he  said  to  them, 
You  men  well  know  that  this  trade  is  the  source  of  our 
wealth.  You  also  see  and  hear  that  not  only  at  Ephesus 
but  over  almost  all  the  province  of  Asia  this  Paul  has  drawn 
off  a  considerable  number  of  people  by  persuading  them 
that  hand-made  gods  are  no  gods  at  all.  There  is  danger 
therefore  not  only  that  this  our  trade  will  be  discredited  but 
also  that  the  temple  of  the  great  goddess  Artemis  will  fall 
into  contempt  and  that  she  will  be  degraded  from  her 
majestic  rule,  she  whom  all  the  province  of  Asia  and  the 
inhabited  world  worship.  When  they  heard  this  they  were 
filled  with  rage  and  kept  crying  out,  Great  is  Artemis  of 
the  Ephesians!  So  the  city  was  filled  with  confusion,  and 
they  rushed  into  the  theater  dragging  with  them  Gaius 
and  Aristarchus,  Macedonians  who  were  travelling  with 
Paul.  Paul  also  wanted  to  enter  the  popular  assembly, 
but  the  disciples  would  not  permit  him.  Certain  of  the 
Asiarchs,  who  were  friends  of  his,  also  sent  entreating  him 
not  to  venture  into  the  theater.  Now  some  of  the  people 
were  shouting  one  thing,  and  some  another;  for  the  assem- 
bly were  in  confusion,  and  most  of  them  had  no  idea  why 
they  had  come  together.  Certain  of  the  mob  concluded 
that  it  must  be  Alexander,  since  the  Jews  pushed  him  to 
the  front.  So  Alexander,  motioning  with  his  hand,  desired 
to  defend  himself  before  the  people;  but  when  they  dis- 
covered that  he  was  a  Jew,  one  cry  broke  from  them  all, 
and  for  about  two  hours  they  shouted,  Great  is  Artemis  of 
the  Ephesians !  Then  the  recorder,  quieting  the  mob,  said, 
Men  of  Ephesus,  who  is  there  among  men  that  does  not 
know  that  the  city  of  Ephesus  is  the  guardian  of  the  temple 
of  the  great  Artemis  and  of  the  image  that  fell  from  heaven? 
Therefore,  since  these  things  are  so,  you  should  keep  calm 
and  do  nothing  reckless.  But  instead  you  have  brought 
these  men  here  who  are  neither  robbers  of  temples  nor 
blasphemers  of  our  goddess.  If  Demetrius  and  his  fellow 
tradesmen  have  a  grievance  against  anybody,  public  ses- 

170 


THE  ATTACK  OF  THE   SILVERSMITHS 

sions  of  the  courts  are  held  and  there  are  proconsuls;  let 
both  sides  state  their  charges.  If  you  desire  anything 
further,  it  must  be  settled  in  the  legal  assembly  of  the 
citizens.  Indeed  we  are  in  danger  of  being  charged  with 
riot  in  connection  with  to-day's  proceedings,  for  there  is 
no  reason  that  we  can  give  for  this  riot.  After  saying  these 
words  he  dismissed  the  assembly. 

When  the  tumult  had  ceased,  Paul  sent  for  the  disciples  Paul's 
and  encouraged  them.    Then,  taking  leave  of  them,  he  went  jgjf" 
on  his  way  to  Macedonia.    After  passing  through  these  through 
districts  and  encouraging  the  people  with  many  an  address,  (20^ 
he  came  to  Greece,  where  he  spent  three  months.    Just 
as  he  was  about  to  set  sail  for  Syria,  a  plot  was  laid  against 
him  by  the  Jews.    He  therefore  decided  to  return  through 
Macedonia.   And  these  accompanied  him :  Sopater  of  Beroea, 
the  son  of  Pyrrhus,  Aristarchus  and  Secundus  from  Thessa- 
lonica,  Gaius  of  Derbe,  Timothy  and  Tychicus  and  Trophimus 
from  the  province  of  Asia.    These  went  on  ahead  to  wait  for 
us  at  Troas,  while  we  sailed  from  Philippi  after  the  days  of 
unleavened  bread  and  joined  them  at  Troas,  where  we  spent 
seven  days. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  week,  when  we  met  for  the  breaking  Paul's 
of  bread,  Paul  was  addressing  them,  for  he  was  to  leave  on  Son 
the  next  day.    And  he  continued  his  address  until  midnight.  EfutyJ 
Now  there  were  a  considerable  number  of  lamps  in  the  upper  chusV" 
room  where  we  met.     In  the  window  sat  a  young  man  (?12) 
named  Eutychus  and,  while  Paul  preached  on  and  on,  he 
was  overcome  with  drowsiness,  went  fast  asleep,  and  fell 
from  the  third  story,  and  was  picked  up  dead.    But  Paul, 
going  down,  threw  himself  upon  him  and  embraced  him. 
Do  not  lament,  he  said,  for  his  life  is  still  in  him.    Then  he 
went  up  stairs,  broke  bread  and  ate ;  at  length  after  convers- 
ing with  them  until  dawn  he  departed.    As  for  the  lad,  they 
took  him  away  alive  and  were  greatly  comforted. 

Now  we  had  gone  on  beforehand  to  the  ship  and  set  sail  Paul 
for  Assos,  planning  there  to  take  Paul  on  board,  for  this  poAhof 
was  his  own  arrangement,  since  he  intended  to  travel  by  Ephe- 
land.     So  when  we  met  him  at  Assos,  we  took  him  on  board  (S?«) 
and  went  to  Mitylene.     Sailing  from  there  on  the  following 
day,  we  arrived  opposite  Chios.    Next  day  we  crossed  over 

171 


PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

to  Samos  and  went  on  the  following  day  to  Miletus,  for 
Paul  had  decided  to  sail  past  Ephesus  in  order  that  he  might 
lose  no  time  in  the  province?  of  Asia,  for  he  was  very  eager 
if  possible  to  reach  Jerusalem  by  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

From  Miletus  Paul  sent  to  Ephesus  and  called  to  him  the 
elders  of  the  church.  When  they  came  to  him,  he  said, 
You  know  well  how  I  lived  among  you  all  the  time  since  I 
set  foot  in  the  province  of  Asia;  how  I  served  the  Lord  in 
all  humility  and  with  tears  and  trials  which  came  to  me 
through  the  plots  of  the  Jews,  how  I  never  shrank  from 
declaring  to  you  anything  that  was  for  your  good  or  from 
teaching  you  in  public  and  in  your  houses,  bearing  my 
testimony  both  to  Jews  and  Greeks  of  repentance  toward 
God  and  faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  And  now  behold 
I  go  to  Jerusalem,  impelled  by  the  Spirit.  What  things 
will  befall  me  there  I  do  not  know.  Only  I  know  this, 
that  in  every  city  the  Holy  Spirit  testifies  to  me  that  bonds 
and  troubles  are  awaiting  me.  But  I  set  no  value  on  my 
own  life,  if  I  may  but  finish  my  course  and  carry  out  the 
commission  that  I  received  from  the  Lord  Jesus  to  attest 
the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God. 

And  now  behold  I  know  that  not  one  of  you  shall  ever  see 
my  face  again — you  among  whom  I  went  about  preaching 
the  Kingdom  of  God.  Therefore  I  protest  before  you  this 
day  that  I  am  not  responsible  for  the  blood  of  any  of  you, 
for  I  never  shrank  from  declaring  to  you  the  entire  purpose 
of  God.  Take  heed  to  yourselves  and  to  all  the  flock  of 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  has  appointed  you  guardians  that 
you  shepherd  the  church  of  the  Lord  which  he  has  bought 
with  his  own  blood.  I  know  that  when  I  am  gone,  fierce 
wolves  will  enter  in  among  you,  and  they  will  not  spare  the 
flock,  and  that  many  of  your  own  number  will  arise  who  will 
pervert  the  truth  in  order  to  draw  away  the  disciples  after 
them.  Therefore  be  on  your  guard,  remember  how  for 
three  whole  years  I  never  ceased  night  and  day  admonish- 
ing each  of  you  with  tears.  And  now  I  commend  you  to 
God  and  the  word  of  his  grace.  He  is  able  to  build  you 
up  and  give  you  your  inheritance  among  all  the  consecrated. 
I  coveted  no  man's  silver,  gold,  or  apparel.  You  yourselves 
know  how  these  hands  of  mine  provided  everything  for  my 

172 


PAUL'S  ADDRESS  TO  THE  ELDERS 

own  needs  and  for  those  who  were  with  me.  In  all  things 
I  set  you  an  example  that,  working  as  I  do,  you  should  succor 
the  needy  and  remember  the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  who 
said,  It  brings  more  happiness  to  give  than  to  receive. 
Having  spoken  thus,  Paul  knelt  down  and  prayed  with  them 
all.  Then  they  all  broke  into  loud  lamentation  and  falling 
upon  Paul's  neck,  kissed  him  lovingly,  sorrowing  most  of 
ail  because  he  told  them  that  they  would  never  see  his 
face  again.    Then  they  escorted  him  to  the  ship. 

I.  Paul's  Journey  to  Syria.  As  has  already  been  noted,  Paul's 
original  objective  in  his  second  missionary  campaign  was  Ephesus. 
He  apparently  had  intended  to  go  there  at  once  after  leaving  Achaia 
and  to  remain.  Instead  he  made  a  hurried  trip  to  Syria.  His  reason 
for  so  doing  is  not  stated  in  the  biblical  narrative  and  evidently  was 
an  open  question  in  the  minds  of  the  early  narrators.  The  author  of 
Acts  inferred  that  his  object  was  to  salute  the  mother  church  at 
Jerusalem.  Under  the  influence  of  this  inference,  Luke,  in  Acts  1822, 
has  not  stated  directly  but  left  his  readers  to  imply  that  Paul  actually 
went  to  Jerusalem.  Here  one  recognizes  the  influence  of  Luke's  pro- 
found regard  for  the  authority  of  the  Jerusalem  church.  There  is 
much  evidence,  however,  that  Paul  did  not  revisit  Jerusalem  at  this 
time.  The  account  of  the  completion  of  his  third  missionary  journey 
in  Acts  21  clearly  implies  that  he  had  not  returned  since  the  council 
at  Jerusalem.  At  his  private  interview  with  the  "pillar"  apostles  the 
one  command  which  they  had  laid  upon  him  was  to  remember  the 
poor  with  gifts.  That  he  would  return  to  Jerusalem  empty-handed 
is  almost  incredible.  The  evidence  rather  is  that  he  went  back  to 
Antioch  and  there  remained  for  some  time.  The  situation  suggests 
that  the  reasons  which  led  him  to  do  so,  instead  of  going  directly  back 
to  Ephesus,  were  twofold.  The  first  was  his  need  of  rest  after  his 
exceedingly  strenuous  and  in  many  ways  discouraging  work  at  Corinth. 
Paul,  the  native  of  the  seaport  town  of  Tarsus,  was  naturally  fond  of 
the  sea  and  for  him  the  sea  journey  was  ordinarily  restful  rather  than 
arduous.  His  remaining  for  some  time  at  Antioch,  even  though  the 
crying  needs  of  the  western  fields  were  ringing  in  his  ears,  is  best 
explained  because  of  his  need  of  rest.  The  other  and  probably  the 
principal  reason  why  he  returned  to  Syria  was  that,  after  having  rested 
for  a  time,  he  might  revisit  the  churches  of  Galatia.  Apparently  the 
strenuous  letter  which  he  had  written  these  Galatian  churches  was 

173 


PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

penned  at  Corinth  and  he  was  naturally  desirous  of  following  it  in  per- 
son. Inasmuch  as  the  land  journey  was  far  more  arduous,  he  wisely 
determined  to  make  it,  not  on  his  return  to  Antioch,  but  as  he,  again 
refreshed,  set  out  for  his  new  field  of  activity.  That  he  did  then  re- 
visit the  Galatian  churches  is  stated  by  Luke.  This  time  Paul  fol- 
lowed the  great  Roman  highway  westward,  from  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
taking  the  northern,  more  mountainous,  route  directly  to  Ephesus. 
Then  at  last,  after  having  revisited  the  scenes  of  his  earlier  missionary 
activity,  he  found  himself  free  for  work  in  the  chief  emporium  and 
political  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Asia. 

II.  The  Political  and  Religious  Importance  of  Ephesus.  The 
province  of  Asia  was  one  of  the  largest,  richest,  and  most  closely  knit 
of  all  the  Roman  provinces  in  Asia  Minor.  Here  at  Ephesus  the  Ro- 
man proconsul  had  his  official  residence.  From  Ephesus  great  com- 
mercial highways  radiated  to  all  the  important  cities  of  the  province, 
and  it  was  the  chief  gateway  which  led  over  the  sea  to  Corinth  and 
Rome.  On  the  main  highway  to  the  east  lay  the  cities  of  Colossse 
and  Laodicea.  Northward,  all  within  a  radius  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  were  Sardis  and  Thyatira,  the  cities  in  which  were  estab- 
lished the  important  Christian  churches  mentioned  in  the  opening 
chapters  of  Revelation.  Ephesus  was  in  many  ways  the  most  in- 
fluential city  in  which  Paul  had  as  yet  worked.  Like  most  Greek 
cities,  it  encircled  a  hill  rising  about  five  hundred  feet  from  the 
plain  and  crowned  with  an  acropolis.  The  business  and  intellec- 
tual centre  of  the  city  was  on  the  west  of  this  hill  looking  toward  the 
sea.  On  its  northwestern  slope  above  the  River  Cayster  was  the 
huge  stadium  capable  of  holding  fully  six  thousand  people.  Here  Paul 
with  the  Ephesian  populace  doubtless  witnessed  many  of  the  popular 
games  from  which  he  draws  some  of  his  most  effective  figures  of  speech. 
Farther  to  the  south  on  the  western  brow  of  the  hill  was  the  great 
theatre.  The  remarkably  well-preserved  ruins  which  have  been  ex- 
cavated at  this  point  probably  represent  a  somewhat  later  theatre 
built  on  the  site  of  the  one  which  figures  so  prominently  in  the  nar- 
rative of  Acts.  It  marked  the  centre  of  the  life  of  the  ancient  city. 
Just  below  it  to  the  northwest  was  the  Roman  agora,  while  to  the 
southwest  was  the  famous  Hellenistic  agora,  surrounded  by  beautiful 
porticos  with  public  halls  on  the  south.  Not  far  from  this  point  prob- 
ably stood  the  Hall  of  Tyrannus. 

According  to  tradition,  Ephesus  was  settled  by  a  Greek  colony 
from  Athens  in  the  eleventh  century  B.C.    Even  before  the  Greeks 

174 


THE  RELIGIOUS  IMPORTANCE  OF  EPHESUS 

appeared,  the  city  was  already  famous  as  the  shrine  of  a  native  nature- 
goddess,  whose  temple  lay  on  the  broad  plain  beside  the  Cayster  to 
the  northeast  of  the  Graeco-Roman  Ephesus.  Recent  excavations 
have  laid  bare  the  foundations  of  this  ancient  sanctuary  far  below 
the  huge  platform  of  the  great  Greek  temple  of  Artemis,  which  was 
built  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Out  of  the  conflicts  between 
the  Greek  colonists  and  the  priestesses  of  the  native  temple  grew  the 
famous  traditions  of  the  Amazons  who  fought  as  men.  In  Paul's 
day  the  temple  of  Artemis  stood  seven  feet  above  the  plain  on  a  great 
artificial  platform,  which  had  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  earlier  temples. 
It  is  approached  by  ten  steps,  and  covered  an  area  of  over  eighty 
thousand  square  feet.  Its  huge  columns  rose  more  than  sixty  feet 
above  the  platform.  Standing  in  solitary  grandeur  in  the  midst  of 
the  great  plain,  it  appears  to  have  well  merited  the  signal  honor  of 
being  reckoned  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  oracles 
of  the  Greek  goddess  Artemis  rivalled  those  even  of  Delphi,  although 
they  never  appear  to  have  exerted  as  wholesome  a  political  or  moral 
influence  as  did  those  of  its  more  famous  Hellenic  rival.  To  the  temple 
of  Artemis  came  fugitives  from  all  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  for  within 
its  sacred  precincts  they  were  immune  from  all  pursuit  or  attack.  It 
was  also  the  great  banking  centre  of  that  part  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
for  kings  as  well  as  thousands  of  private  individuals  placed  their 
wealth  under  the  protection  of  the  temple  authorities,  assured  that  it 
would  be  safely  guarded.  The  gifts  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  swelled 
the  temple's  income  and  supported  the  vast  horde  of  virgin  priestesses 
and  celibate  priests,  of  temple  singers  and  hymn-writers,  and  of  menial 
servants  associated  with  this  ancient  shrine.  The  hierarchy  of  the 
temple  and  those  whose  income  was  dependent  either  directly  or  in- 
directly on  the  worship  of  the  temple  were  always  a  powerful  factor 
in  the  life  of  Ephesus.  The  city  itself  bore  the  coveted  title  of  "Guard- 
ian (literally,  Sweeper)  of  the  temple." 

III.  Conditions  that  Confronted  Paul  at  Ephesus.  As  early 
as  44  B.C.  the  Roman  consul  Dolabella  had  granted  to  the  Jews  of 
Ephesus  the  toleration  of  their  religious  rites,  the  privilege  of  Sabbath 
observance,  and  protection  in  making  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  (Jos., 
Ant.,  XIV,  1012,  25).  Augustus  had  later  confirmed  these  privileges. 
Paul,  therefore,  found  a  strong  Jewish  colony  at  this  great  commercial 
metropolis.  As  at  Corinth,  he  also  found  them  unwilling  to  accept  a 
religion  which  was  offered  to  Jew  and  Gentile  alike  and  which  set 
aside  as  obsolete  many  of  the  inherited  laws  of  their  race.    Ephesus 

175 


PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

was  pre-eminently  given  up  to  magic  and  the  religious  quackeries  in- 
herited from  the  ancient  religions.  Many  Jews  were  found  in  a  cos- 
mopolitan city  like  Ephesus  who,  for  mercenary  reasons,  practised 
these  magical  arts.  To  this  class  belonged  the  strolling  Jewish  ex- 
orcists, the  sons  of  Sceva,  who  figure  in  a  popular  tradition  concerning 
Paul's  work  at  Ephesus  which  the  author  of  Acts  has  incorporated  in 
his  narrative.  Ramsay  is  probably  right  in  saying  that  "the  writer 
is  here  rather  a  picker  up  of  current  gossip,  like  Herodotus,  than  a  real 
historian"  (St.  Paul,  p.  273).  The  story,  however,  records  the  in- 
dubitable fact  that  Paul  here  came  into  constant  contact  with  this 
debased  Judaism,  in  which  popular  demonology,  angelology,  and 
superstition  were  grotesquely  commingled.  Modern  excavations  have 
revealed  hundreds  of  the  magic  papyri,  or  "Ephesian  letters,"  as  they 
are  called  because  most  of  them  were  prepared  in  Ephesus.  Although 
the  prevailing  religious  life  of  Ephesus  was  shallow,  the  spirit  of  the 
city  was  on  the  whole  tolerant.  Here  all  religions  of  the  East  and 
West  and  of  the  North  and  South — Judaism,  Gnosticism,  the  oriental 
mystery  cults,  Greek  and  Alexandrian  philosophy,  and  nature-faiths — 
commingled;  but  the  prevailing  religious  fashion  was  to  single  out  and 
combine  what  was  attractive  in  each.  Hence,  as  long  as  Paul  did 
not  interfere  with  vested  or  financial  interests,  he  was  free  to  teach 
whatever  and  whenever  and  wherever  he  pleased  and  was  sure  of  a 
liberal  hearing. 

IV.  Paul's  Method  of  Work  at  Ephesus.  Again  Paul's  mar- 
vellous gift  of  adapting  himself  to  any  situation  was  well  illustrated. 
The  narrative  in  Acts  states  that  he  first  went  into  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue and  endeavored  by  argument  and  persuasion  to  convince  them 
that  Jesus  had  inaugurated  the  Kingdom  of  God  for  which  their  race 
was  longing,  but  that  they  rejected  the  way  of  thinking  and  living 
which  he  proclaimed.  Then  Paul  adopted  and  followed  a  daily  pro- 
gramme which  evidently  fitted  the  peculiar  conditions  of  that  ancient 
Ionian  city  in  which  the  working  hours  for  all  classes  began  with  sun- 
rise and  extended  to  eleven  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  remainder 
of  the  day  they  spent  in  their  homes  or  at  public  places.  Paul  ap- 
parently plied  his  trade  of  tent-maker  during  business  hours.  Then, 
when  the  lecture  hours  of  the  public  philosophers  and  rhetoricians 
were  over,  he  secured  the  lecture  hall  of  one  of  them,  a  certain  Tyrannus, 
and,  as  is  recorded  in  the  Beza  text,  argued  publicly  from  eleven  to 
four  each  day.  In  closely  crowded  Ephesus  many  were  doubtless 
attracted  to  the  lecture  room  of  Paul  the  Christian  philosopher.    Jews 

176 


PAUL'S  METHOD  OF  WORK 

and  Greeks,  and  many  visiting  strangers  from  the  neighboring  cities 
of  Asia  listened  to  his  fervid  appeals.  In  Ephesus  Paul  himself  must 
have  become  intimately  acquainted  with  the  mystery-religions  of 
Asia  Minor  from  which  are  drawn  many  of  the  figures  of  speech  that 
appear  in  his  later  letters.  His  epistle  to  the  near-by  church  of 
Colossae  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  he  probably 
combated  the  prevalent  gnostic  doctrines. 

At  Ephesus  Paul  built  on  foundations  already  laid  by  his  co-workers 
Priscilla  and  Aquila,  if  not  by  earlier  Christian  apostles.  In  thus  build- 
ing he  departed  from  his  general  rule  of  action  because  he  recognized 
the  great  strategic  importance  of  Ephesus.  Evidently  he  made  it 
the  base  for  missionary  activity  throughout  Asia.  Epaphras  and 
probably  Timothy  were  sent  to  establish  a  Christian  community  in 
Colossae  (Col.  I1"7).  Tychicus  possibly  did  similar  pioneer  work  in 
Laodicea  (Eph.  621).  The  personal  letter  appended  in  chapter  16  to 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  evidently  written  to  the  Christians  of 
Ephesus  (c/.,  e.  g.,  Rom.  165)  from  Corinth,  after  Paul  had  left  the 
capital  city  of  Asia.  In  it  are  found  warm  personal  greetings  addressed 
to  his  fellow  workers  in  Asia.  Twenty-four  in  all  are  mentioned  in 
this  short  letter.  It  suggests  how  well  and  how  broadly  Paul's  work 
at  Ephesus  was  organized  and  that  Ephesus  was  but  the  centre  through 
which  he  sought  to  reach  all  the  important  cities  in  southwestern  Asia 
Minor. 

V.  Paul's  Conflict  with  the  Pagan  Cults.  For  a  considerable 
period  Paul's  work  seems  to  have  met  with  little  opposition.  In  his 
contest  with  the  Jewish  exorcists  the  sympathy  of  a  majority  of  the 
Ephesian  populace  was  with  him,  for  the  anti-Jewish  feeling  was  evi- 
dently strong.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  come  into  direct  conflict 
with  the  authorities  of  the  temple  of  Artemis.  The  Asiarchs,  some  of 
whom  sympathized  with  Paul,  were  the  official  local  representatives 
in  the  province  of  the  worship  of  the  emperor  and  of  Rome.  Their 
task  at  this  period  was  apparently  more  political  than  religious,  for 
the  bitter  conflict  between  Christianity  and  the  Roman  emperor- 
worship  still  lay  in  the  future.  According  to  Acts,  the  first  strong 
opposition  to  Paul's  teaching  came  from  organized  labor  and  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  his  teachings  had  already  gained  a  wide  acceptance 
throughout  the  city.  One  of  the  favorite  offerings  of  the  pilgrims  to 
the  temple  of  Artemis  was  a  votive  image,  which  was  presented  to  the 
goddess  by  the  offerer  and  left  within  the  temple  precincts.  These 
votive  images  represented  the  goddess  seated  on  a  throne.    Those 

177 


PAUL'S  MINISTRY  AT  EPHESUS 

offered  by  the  poorer  people  were  usually  made  of  terra-cotta.  The 
wealthy  brought  images  of  silver.  The  guild  of  the  silversmiths,  of 
which  Demetrius  was  the  spokesman,  evidently  manufactured  these 
silver  images.  Contemporary  inscriptions  indicate  that  there  were 
many  guilds  of  manual  workers  in  ancient  Ephesus.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  guilds  of  the  wool-workers,  of  the  surveyors,  and  of  the  workmen 
before  the  gate  are  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions.  They  constituted, 
therefore,  an  important  class  in  this  commercial  metropolis  and  were 
able  by  the  cry  of  class  interest  to  stir  the  mob  to  action.  While  sub- 
ject to  the  strict  supervision  of  Rome,  Ephesus  still  enjoyed  the  demo- 
cratic organization  of  a  typical  Greek  city.  It  had  its  senate  and  in 
addition  its  popular  assembly.  In  the  peculiar  civic  organization  of 
the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  the  recorder  or  clerk  was  the  leading  official, 
as  appears  in  the  narrative  of  Acts.  This  narrative  is  probably  cor- 
rect in  stating  that  he  opposed  the  class  uprising,  fearing  Roman  sus- 
picion and  possible  interposition.  Either  through  ignorance  of  facts 
or  intentionally  the  author  of  Acts  has  failed  to  speak  of  the  greater 
misfortunes  which  overtook  Paul.  In  fact,  the  exact  order  of  events 
is  not  entirely  clear,  although  it  is  obvious  that  the  scene  in  the  theatre, 
at  which  Paul  was  not  present,  occurred  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
sojourn  at  Ephesus  and  was  probably  one  of  the  causes  of  his  ultimate 
departure.  Paul  himself  declared  that  he  fought  with  wild  beasts  at 
Ephesus  and  many  are  inclined  to  interpret  these  words  literally.  It 
is  possible,  however,  that  he  had  in  mind  the  infuriated  mob  which 
sought  his  life  and  that  of  his  associates.  In  a  later  letter,  written  to 
the  Corinthian  Christians  from  Ephesus,  he  states  that  he  nearly 
lost  his  life  there  (II  Cor.  II23).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
closing  months  of  his  activity  were  marked  by  bitter  opposition  and 
persecution. 

VI.  The  Results  of  Paul's  Work  at  Ephesus.  Paul  spent 
more  time  and  apparently  suffered  more  bitter  persecution  at  Ephesus 
than  at  any  other  city  that  he  visited  except  Rome,  where  he  at  last 
gave  his  life  for  the  cause  he  served.  At  Ephesus  also  he  had  to  con- 
tend against  a  complex  of  false  philosophies,  as  well  as  pagan  super- 
stitions. And  yet  it  proved  a  most  fruitful  field.  In  writing  from 
there  to  the  Corinthians  he  declared:  "A  great  doorris  opened  to  me" 
(I  Cor.  169).  There  he  was  able  to  rally  about  him  an  exceedingly 
loyal  band  of  helpers.  In  the  Ephesian  letter,  appended  to  Romans, 
he  speaks  of  "Priscilla  and  Aquila,  my  fellow  workers  in  Jesus  who 
for  my  life  laid  down  their  own  necks"  (Rom.  163>  4).    Two  others, 

178 


THE  RESULTS  OF  PAUL'S  WORK 

Andronicus  and  Junius,  shared  a  prison  experience  with  him.  Ephesus 
and  the  province  of  Asia  in  the  succeeding  centuries  proved  one  of  the 
great  strongholds  of  Christianity,  and  yet  the  results  of  Paul's  per- 
sonal work  there  appear  to  have  been  far  less  permanent  than  else- 
where. We  have  no  record  that  he  ever  again  visited  or  wrote  any 
other  letter  to  the  Ephesian  Christians  except  the  short  personal  note 
in  Romans  16.  Even  in  this  he  urges  his  fellow  workers  at  Ephesus 
to  keep  their  eye  on  "those  who  stir  up  dissensions  and  put  hindrances 
in  your  way,  contrary  to  the  doctrine  which  you  have  been  taught. 
Avoid  them.  Such  creatures  are  no  servants  of  Christ  our  Lord,  they 
are  slaves  of  their  own  base  desires;  with  their  plausible  and  pious  talk 
they  beguile  the  hearts  of  unsuspecting  people."  In  Paul's  later  ad- 
dress to  the  Ephesian  elders  he  is  represented  as  warning  them  that 
"fierce  wolves  will  get  in  among  them,  and  they  will  not  spare  the 
flock";  also  that  "men  of  their  own  number  will  arise  with  perversions 
of  the  truth  to  draw  the  disciples  after  them"  (Acts  2129- 30).  These 
statements  point  to  the  many  heretical  and  especially  gnostic  doctrines 
that  sprang  spontaneously  from  the  already  infected  soil  of  Ephesus. 
In  their  earlier  dealings  with  Rome  the  citizens  of  Ephesus  had  repeat- 
edly shown  themselves  exceedingly  fickle.  The  same  impression  re- 
garding the  Ephesian  church  is  conveyed  by  the  letter  addressed  to 
it  in  Revelation  24>  5.  The  two  letters  to  Timothy,  to  whose  care  the 
Christian  communities  in  Asia  were  intrusted,  indicate  that  the 
loyalty  to  Paul  which  had  characterized  the  other  churches  of  his 
planting  was  lacking  here.  II  Timothy  l15  contains  the  sweeping 
statement:  "You  know  that  all  who  are  in  Asia  have  turned  away 
from  me."  While  their  nominal  allegiance  appears  to  have  been  trans- 
ferred from  Paul  to  John  the  presbyter  and  other  apostolic  leaders, 
the  pioneer  work  of  Paul  remained  the  foundation  of  the  church  in 
Asia,  and  the  principles  laid  down  by  him  reappear  in  the  rich  Johan- 
nine  literature  that  later  sprang  from  Ephesus  (§  CLXIX). 

§  CLX.    PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  SAVING  WORK 

Paul,  a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  called  to  be  an  apostle,  Greet- 
set  apart  for  the  gospel  of  God  concerning  Jesus  Christ  ^gom< 
our  Lord,  through  whom  I  have  received  grace  and  a  com-   i1-  6-7>* 
mission  to  promote  obedience  to  the  faith  for  his  name's 
sake  among  all  the  Gentiles,  among  whom  are  you  also, 
who  are  called  to  belong  to  Jesus  Christ;  to  all  in  Rome  who 

179 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

are  beloved  by  God,  called  to  be  saints,  Grace  and  peace 
from  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
Pauls        First  of  all,  I  thank  my  God  through  Jesus  Christ  for 
tfon  to    you  all,  because  your  faith  is  reported  throughout  the  whole 
Rem  n  world.     God  is  my  witness,  the  God  whom  I  serve  with  my 
church   spirit  in  the  gospel  of  his  Son,  how  unceasingly  I  always 
(8 1,}      mention  you  in  my  prayers,  asking  if  at  last  the  way  may  be 
opened  to  me  by  God's  will  to  come  to  you.    For  I  long  to 
see  you  that  I  may  impart  to  you  some  spiritual  gift  for  your 
strengthening  or,  in  other  words,  that  I  may  be  comforted 
by  meeting  you,  I  by  your  faith  and  you  by  mine.    Brothers, 
I  would  not  have  you  ignorant  that  I  have  often  purposed 
to  come  to  you  (though  hitherto  I  have  been  prevented)  so 
as  to  have  some  results  among  you,  as  well  as  among  the 
rest  of  the  Gentiles.    I  have  an  obligation  to  Greeks  and  to 
barbarians,  to  wise  and  to  foolish  alike.    Hence  my  eager- 
ness to  preach  the  gospel  to  you  also  who  are  in  Rome. 
Thesis:      I  indeed  am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel,  for  it  is  God's 
Su?"    saving  power  for  everyone  who  has  faith,  for  the  Jew  first 
neg  s    and  for  the  Greek  as  well.    In  that  gospel  God's  righteous- 
aione     ness  is  revealed  by  faith  to  develop  faith,  as  it  is  written: 
faft°hugh  Now  the  righteous  shall  live  by  faith. 
("■")         For  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven  against  all 
Failure  the  impurity  and  wickedness  of  those  who  hinder  the  truth 
hea?e    by  their  wickedness,  for  what  is  to  be  known  of  God  is 
*j£3d     plain  to  them;  for  God  himself  hath  made  it  plain.    For, 
to°r       since  the  creation  of  the  world,  his  invisible  things,  his 
right-n    everlasting  power  and  divine  nature,  have  been  clearly 
eous-      perceptible  in  what  he  hath  made,  that  they  may  have  no 
Se'cause  excuse.    Though  they  knew  God,  they  have  not  glorified 
of  faith  him  as  God  nor  given  him  thanks;  they  have  given  them- 
(?8S)0d    selves  up  to  futile   speculations   and  let  their  senseless 
minds  be  darkened.    Claiming  to  be  wise,  they  have  be- 
come fools;  and  they  have  exchanged  the  glory  of  the 
immortal  God  for  the  semblance  of  a  likeness  of  mortal 
man,  of  birds,  of  four-footed  beasts,  and  of  reptiles.     So 
God  hath  given  them  up  in  their  heart's  lust  to  sexual  vice, 
to  the  dishonoring  of  their  own  bodies;  for  they  have  ex- 
changed the  truth  for  a  lie  and  have  worshipped  and  served 
the  creature  rather  than  the  Creator,  who  is  blessed  forever. 

180 


THE  LIKE  REWARD  FOR  JEW  AND  GENTILE 

He  it  is  who  will  render  to  everyone  according  to  his  Jew 
works,  eternal  life  to  those  who  by  patiently  doing  good  Gentile 
seek  for  glory,  honor,  and  immortality,  but  wrath  and  in-  tobe 
dignation  to  those  who  are  factious,  who  disobey  the  truth  warded 
and  obey  wickedness.    Trouble  and  anguish  are  for  every  forke 
human  being  who  does  evil,  for  the  Jew  first  and  for  the  their 
Greek  as  well;   but  glory,  honor,  and  peace  for  everyone  (2«-«) 
who  does  good,  for  the  Jew  first  and  for  the  Greek  as  well. 
There  is  no  partiality  with  God.    All  who  sin  outside  the 
law  will  perish  outside  the  law;  and  all  who  sin  under  the 
law  will  be  condemned  by  the  law.    For  it  is  not  the  hearers 
of  the  law  who  are  just  before  God,  it  is  those  who  obey 
the  law  who  will  be  acquitted  on  the  day  when  God  judgeth 
the  secret  things  of  men. 

What  then,  have  we  Jews  any  advantage  ?    Not  at  all,  Failure 
for  we  have  already  charged  both  Jews  and  Greeks  that  Sewsto 
they  are  under  sin,  as  it  is  written,  None  is  righteous,  no,  attg^ 
not  one;  no  one  understands,  no  one  seeks  for  God.    All  eous- 
have  turned  aside,  one  and  all  have  become  unprofitable;  through 
no  one  does  good,  not  a  single  one.    For  no  mortal  will  *£?_Jfw 
be  acquitted  in  his  sight  by  acts  of  obedience  to  the  law,  for  »») 
through  the  law  simply  comes  the  consciousness  of  sin. 

But  now  apart  from  the  law  a  righteousness  of  God  has  Right- 
been  disclosed.    It  is  attested  by  the  law  and  the  prophets,  £SX~ 
but  it  is  a  righteousness  of  God  through  faith  in  Jesus  f^fb 
Christ.    It  is  for  all  who  have  faith,  for  there  is  no  dis-  Christ 
tinction.    All  have  sinned  and  fall  short  of  the  glory  of  God, 
but  they  are  justified  freely  by  his  grace  through  the  ran- 
som provided  by  Jesus  Christ.     God  set  him  forth  as  a 
means  whereby  men  might,  through  faith  in  his  blood,  win 
divine  forgiveness.    This  was  to  demonstrate  the  justice 
of  God  because  he  had  passed  over  previously  the  sins 
committed  during  the  period  of  God's  forbearance,  and  to 
demonstrate  the  justice  at  the  present  epoch,  showing  that 
he  himself  is  just  and  justifieth  every  man  through  faith  in 
Jesus.    Where  then  is  the  boast  ?    It  is  excluded !    By 
what  law  ?     Of  works  ?    No,  by  the  law  of  faith.    We 
hold  that  a  man  is  justified  by  faith  apart  from  the  works 
of  the  law.     Or  is  God  only  the  God  of  the  Jews?    Is  he 
not  the  God  of  the  Gentiles  also  ?    Surely  he  is  of  the  Gen- 

181 


(21-31) 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

tiles  also.     Surely  then  there  is  one  God,  and  he  will  jus- 
tify the  circumcised  by  faith,  and  the  uncircumcised  through 
faith.    Do  we  then  make  the  law  of  none  effect  through 
faith?    No,  indeed!    We  establish  the  law. 
Abra-        For  the  promise  to  Abraham  and  to  his  offspring  that  he 
muf5-an  should  inherit  the  world,  was  not  made  through  the  law, 
ofath?sn   kut  through  the  righteousness  of  faith.    For  if  they  who 
piin-      are  of  the  law  are  heirs,  faith  is  without  meaning,  and  the 
(J?}®*)  promise  is  made  of  none  effect.     What  the  law  produces 
is  wrath;  but  where  there  is  no  law,  there  is  no  trans- 
gression.   For  this  reason  inheritance  depends  upon  faith, 
that  it  may  be  a  matter  of  divine  favor,  to  make  the  promise 
sure  to  all  the  offspring,  not  only  to  those  who  hold  to  the 
law  but  also  to  those  who  share  the  faith  of  Abraham,  who 
is  the  father  of  us  all,  as  is  written:  I  have  made  thee  a 
father  of  many  nations. 
The  Therefore,  since  we  are  justified  by  faith,  let  us  enjoy 

JSe     the  peace  we  have  with  God  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
JgjJJjg    Through  him  we  also  have  gained  access  to  this  grace 
atr-        wherein  we  stand,  and  we  exult  in  the  hope  of  God's  glory. 
trough  And  not  only  so,  but  we  also  exult  in  our  troubles,  knowing 
chnsts  that  trouble  produces  stedfastness,  and  stedfastness  pro- 
sacrf-     duces  tested  character,  and  tested  character  produces  hope. 
(51%     This  hope  never  disappoints  us,  for  God's  love  has  flooded 
our  hearts  through  the  Holy  Spirit  which  has  been  given  to 
us.    For  while  we  were  yet  weak,  in  due  season  Christ 
died  for  the  ungodly.     Why,  one  will  scarcely  die  for  a 
righteous  man,  though  one  might  perhaps  dare  to  die  for 
a  good  man.    But  God  proveth  his  own  love  toward  us,  in 
that,  while  we  were  yet  sinners,  Christ  died  for  us.    Much 
more  then,  now  that  we  are  justified  by  his  blood,  shall 
we  be  saved  from  the  wrath  of  God  by  him?    For  if,  while 
we  were  enemies,  we  were  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death 
of  his  Son,  much  more,  now  that  we  are  reconciled,  shall 
we  be  saved  by  his  life.    Not  only  so,  but  we  exult  in  God 
through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  through  whom  we  now  re- 
ceive our  reconciliation. 

There  is  therefore  no  condemnation  for  those  who  are  in 
Christ  Jesus.  For  the  law  of  the  spirit  of  life  in  Christ 
Jesus  has  set  me  free  from  the  law  of  sin  and  death.    For 

182 


THE  NEW  SPIRITUAL  LIFE  OF  THE   CHRISTIAN 

what  the  law,  weakened  by  the  flesh,  could  not  do,  God  The 
hath  done  by  sending  his  own  son  in  the  likeness  of  sinful  spiri- 
flesh.    And  to  deal  with  sin  he  condemned  sin  in  the  flesh,  ^f^te 
in  order  that  the  just  requirements  of  the  law  might  be  ful-  to  the 
filled  in  our  lives,  as  we  walk  not  by  the  flesh  but  by  the  tianS" 
spirit.    For  those  who  are  fleshly  minded  incline  to  the   (8111) 
things  of  the  flesh,  but  those  who  are  spiritually  minded  in- 
cline to  the  things  of  the  spirit.    The  inclinations  of  the 
flesh  mean  death,  but  the  inclinations  of  the  spirit  life  and 
peace.    For  the  inclinations  of  the  flesh  are  hostile  to  God, 
for  they  do  not  submit  to  the  will  of  God  (indeed  they  can- 
not).   Those  who  are  in  the  flesh  cannot  please  God,  but 
you  are  not  in  the  flesh  but  in  the  spirit,  if  the  Spirit  of  God 
dwells  in  you.    Anyone  who  does  not  have  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  does  not  belong  to  him.     But,  if  Christ  is  within 
you,  though  the  body  is  dead  as  a  result  of  sin,  the  spirit 
is  living  as  a  result  of  righteousness.     And,  if  the  Spirit 
of  him  who  raised  up  Jesus  from  the  dead  dwells  within 
you,  then  he  who  raised  Christ  Jesus  from  the  dead  will 
also  make  your  mortal  bodies  live  because  his  Spirit  is 
dwelling  within  you. 

So  then,  brothers,  we  are  under  no  obligation  to  the  oblige 
flesh  to  live  by  the  flesh.    If  you  live  by  the  flesh  you  must  an?s 
die,  but,  if  by  the  spirit  you  put  to  death  the  deeds  of  the  fer*^"of 
body,  you  will  live.    For  as  many  as  are  led  by  the  Spirit  spin- 
of  God  these  are  the  sons  of  God.    For  you  have  not  re-  son- 
ceived  a  slavish  spirit  that  would  make  you  fear  again;  ship 
but  you  have  received  the  spirit  of  sonship,  whereby  we 
cry,  Abba  Father!    This  Spirit  bears  witness  with  our  own 
spirit  that  we  are  children  of  God;  and  if  children  then 
heirs,  heirs  of  God  and  heirs  with  Christ  also ;  for  we  share 
his  suffering  in  order  to  share  his  glory. 

I  consider  that  the  sufferings  of  this  present  life  are  not  Man's 
worthy  to  be  compared  to  the  glory  which  shall  be  revealed  shfp 
to  us.     Even  the  creation  waits  in  eager  expectation  for  the  j^e3**1 
revealing  of  the  sons  of  God.    For  the  creation  was  sub-  goal  of 
jected  to  vanity,  not  by  its  own  choice  but  by  him  who  thus  tfon" 
subjected  it,  whose  hope  being  that  creation  itself  will  also   (1826) 
be  delivered  from  the  bondage  of  corruption  and  gain  the 
glorious  liberty  of  the  children  of  God.    For  we  know  that 

183 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

even  until  now  the  whole  creation  sighs  and  throbs  in  pain ; 
and  not  only  so  but  we  ourselves  also,  who  have  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  Spirit,  sigh  to  ourselves  as  we  wait  for  the  de- 
liverance of  our  body  that  means  our  adoption  as  sons. 
By  this  hope  we  were  saved.    But  hope  that  is  seen  is  not 
hope.    Whoever  hopes  for  what  he  sees  already  ?    But,  if 
we  hope  for  something  that  we  do  not  see,  we  wait  for  it 
patiently. 
Assis-         So  also  the  Spirit  helps  us  in  our  weakness;  for  we  do 
ofnce     not  know  how  to  pray  as  we  ought,  but  the  Spirit  pleads  for 
spSit     us  w**k  s*Sns  that  cannot  be  uttered,  and  he  who  searcheth 
(26> 27)     hearts  knoweth  what  is  in  the  mind  of  the  Spirit,  for  the 

Spirit  pleads  for  the  saints  according  to  the  will  of  God. 

Ron  of       We  know  also  that  to  those  who  love  God,  even  those  who 

Shoe     are  called  according  to  his  purpose,  all  things  work  together 

ola      *or  g°°d*    For  those  whom  he  knew  beforehand  he  also 

(28-30)      appointed  beforehand  that  they  might  be  transformed  into 

the  likeness  of  his  Son,  that  he  might  be  the  first-born  of 

a  great  brotherhood.    Then  he  also  called  those  whom  he 

had  appointed  beforehand,  and  those  whom  he  called  he 

also  justified,  and  those  whom  he  justified  he  also  glorified. 

invui-        What  then  shall  we  say  to  all  this?    If  God  is  for  us, 

secu?le  who  can  be  against  us  ?    Will  not  he  who  spared  not  his 

those f    own  S°n  out  gave  him  up  for  us  all  freely  give  us  all  things  ? 

who       Who  will  lay  a  charge  against  those  whom  God  hath  chosen  ? 

God-sn  When  God   acquitteth,   who   will   condemn?    Will  Christ 

vealed"  Jesus  ? — he  wno  died*  yes,   and  rather  who  was  raised 

through  from  the  dead,  who  is  at  God's  right  hand,  who  also  pleads 

(SXJ     for  us  !    Who  can  ever  separate  us  from  Christ's  love  ? 

Can  tribulation,  or  anguish,  or  persecution,  or  famine,  or 

nakedness,  or  peril,  or  the  sword?    For,  as  it  is  written, 

For  thy  sake  we  are  killed  all  the  day  long,  we  are  accounted 

as  sheep  to  be  slaughtered.     No,  in  all  these  things  we  are 

more  than  conquerors  through  him  who  loved  us.    For  I 

am  convinced  that  neither  death  nor  life,  neither  angels 

nor  principalities,  neither  things  present  nor  things  to  come, 

neither  powers  of  the  height  or  of  the  depth,  nor  any  other 

created  thing  will  be  able  to  separate  us  from  God's  love  in 

Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 

Oh  the  inexhaustible  wealth  of  God's  wisdom  and  knowl- 

184 


GOD'S  OMNISCIENCE  AND  GOODNESS 

edge  !    How  unsearchable  his  judgments  !    How  mysteri-  Gods 
ous  his   way !    Who   ever  knew  the  mind  of  the  Lord  ?  S™" 
Who  has  ever  been  his  counsellor  ?    Who  has  first  given  ^nd^ 
to  him  and  has  to  be  repaid  ?    All  things  come  from  him,  ness " 
live  by  him,  and  return  to  him.     Glory  to  him  forever.   (1133M> 
Amen. 

I.  Date  and  Aim  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Paul's 
letter  to  the  Romans  is  the  best  New  Testament  illustration  of  an 
epistle.  Upon  it  Paul  evidently  expended  great  thought  and  care. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  reminds  one  of  a  rapid  mountain  torrent, 
but  in  Romans  Paul's  thought  flows  more  leisurely,  winding  here  and 
there,  gathering  a  great  variety  and  volume  of  figures  as  it  flows  on 
to  the  practical  applications  with  which  the  epistle  closes.  It  was  a 
dramatic  moment  in  Paul's  life  when  he  dictated  this  letter  to  the 
Christian  community  at  Rome.  His  work  at  Ephesus  and  Corinth, 
and  in  fact  in  the  Greek  world,  was  nearing  completion.  Longingly 
he  looked  at  the  great  Roman  ships  setting  out  from  Corinth  for  the 
imperial  city.  As  he  tells  his  readers,  to  visit  them  was  one  of  the  chief 
ambitions  of  his  life.  His  long  days  and  nights  of  labor  with  Pris- 
cilla  and  Aquila  at  Corinth  and  Ephesus  had  given  him  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  become  acquainted  with  the  problems  of  the  Roman  church. 
Doubtless  many  of  his  own  converts,  having  gravitated  toward  the 
imperial  city,  were  included  in  its  membership.  It  appears  to  have 
comprised  both  Jewish  and  Gentile  converts,  for  Paul  in  his  letter  evi- 
dently had  both  classes  in  mind.  Even  though  his  heart  was  in  Rome, 
his  face  was  steadfastly  set  toward  Jerusalem.  He  was  well  aware  of 
the  opposition  and  perils  which  awaited  him  there,  but  nothing  could 
deflect  him  from  his  purpose  to  take  back  as  a  peace-offering  to  the 
saints  at  Jerusalem  the  collections  which  he  had  gathered  in  response 
to  the  request  of  the  "pillar"  apostles  from  the  churches  which  he  had  • 
planted  in  the  Western  world.  The  Gentile  problem  which  was  still 
insistent  throughout  the  Eastern  church  was  evidently  prominent  in 
Paul's  mind  as  he  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  He  also  felt 
strongly  the  call  of  that  larger  Gentile  world  which  Rome  represented. 
He  longed,  as  he  tells  his  readers,  to  take  up  his  evangelistic  work 
among  them,  but  his  primary  aim  was,  as  has  been  truly  said:  "A 
restatement  in  the  light  of  his  experience,  during  the  long  mission  now 
closing,  and  in  view  of  the  fresh  propaganda  which  he  was  contemplat- 
ing in  the  West,  of  the  principle  of  his  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles  in  its  re- 

185 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

lation  to  Judaism."  Romans  contains  not  a  system  of  philosophy  or 
theology,  but  Paul's  great  confession  of  faith.  The  situation  called 
for  the  systematic  setting  forth  of  his  mature  convictions  and  the 
principles  that  had  inspired  him  in  his  work.  Here  is  revealed  not 
Paul  the  theologian  but  Paul  the  Christian  mystic  and  missionary. 

II.  The  Structure  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Into  the 
opening  salutation  (l1-7)  Paul  puts  not  only  his  formal  greeting  but  also 
his  credentials  as  an  apostle  and  the  essence  of  his  Gospel  message. 
In  l8"17  is  found  the  usual  commendation  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote,  a 
statement  of  his  aim  in  writing  to  them,  and  the  thesis  which  he  later 
defends.  Chapters  l18-521  contain  his  main  teaching.  Here  he  seeks 
to  show  what  God  has  done  through  the  work  of  Jesus  to  meet  the 
needs  of  both  Gentiles  and  Jews.  In  6*-76  he  makes  certain  practical 
applications  of  these  principles  and  defines  the  obligations  of  those 
who  enjoy  the  results  of  divine  grace:  it  is  to  dedicate  themselves  to 
God  and  to  live,  like  Jesus,  a  sinless  life.  In  77"25  he  reverts  to  the 
problems  that  gathered  about  the  Jewish  law  and  declares  that  it  was 
simply  preparatory  to  the  work  of  Jesus  but  not  able  in  itself  to  save 
men.  Romans  8  is  one  of  the  great  classical  passages  in  Paul's  writings. 
Here  he  speaks  clearly  out  of  the  depths  of  his  own  spiritual  experi- 
ence and  aims  to  show  what  Christ  means  in  the  inner  life  of  the  in- 
dividual. "Christ"  is  not  used  here  in  the  limited  Jewish  messianic 
sense.  It  stands  not  only  for  all  that  Jesus  did  and  taught  and  was 
but  also  for  the  crucified  yet  living  Christ  whom  Paul  had  beheld 
through  his  inner  vision.  Chapters  9-11  give  the  reason  why  the 
Jews,  the  favored  people,  had  not  been  saved:  through  failure  to  be- 
lieve in  Jesus  they  had  forfeited  their  birthright;  but  in  God's  plan 
they  were  yet  to  have  a  place  with  the  Gentiles.  Chapters  12-15  con- 
tain the  practical  application  of  the  principles  of  the  Gospel  to  Chris- 
tian life  and  conduct.  Chapter  16  is  a  personal  letter  that  has  been 
appended  to  the  original  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

III.  Paul's  Estimate  of  the  Jewish  Law.  In  Paul's  letter  to 
the  Roman  Christians  the  historical  student  of  religion  recognizes  the 
many  and  varied  currents  of  influence  which  converged  in  the  great 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  Most  of  the  figures  and  many  of  the  ideas 
expressed  in  this  epistle  are  the  product  of  his  intensely  legalistic  train- 
ing. His  natural  tendency  to  speak  in  legal  terms  was  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  he  lived  and  worked  in  the  rigidly  legalistic  atmos- 
phere of  the  Roman  Empire  in  which  he  proudly  claimed  citizenship. 
So  often  had  he  pleaded  his  own  case  before  Jewish  and  Roman  tribunals 

186 


PAUL'S  ESTIMATE  OF  THE  JEWISH  LAW 

that  it  was  second  nature  for  him  to  speak  in  the  language  of  the  court- 
room. Whenever  he  referred  to  the  Jewish  law  it  was  always  in  terms 
of  highest  respect.  On  its  ethical  side  it  still  had  for  him  a  certain 
binding  authority.  He  was  keenly  alive  to  its  historical  and  practical 
value  as  a  clear,  concrete  formulation  of  fundamental  moral  and  re- 
ligious principles.  To  Israel,  during  the  childhood  of  the  race,  the  law 
had  been,  like  a  Roman  pedagogue,  a  wise  guide  directing  the  nation's 
moral  and  religious  education.  But  Paul  was  also  well  aware  of  the 
limitations  of  the  law.  It  had  begotten  in  the  majority  of  his  coun- 
trymen self-pride  and  a  sense  of  moral  self-sufficiency  which  were 
fatal  to  all  real  religious  progress.  Moreover,  Paul  knew  by  painful 
experience  that  while  the  law  developed  in  the  mind  of  a  conscientious 
man  like  himself  a  bitter  consciousness  of  sin,  it  provided  no  practical 
way  of  escape  from  its  consequences.  Above  all,  the  law  emphasized 
the  judicial  side  of  God's  character  and  provided  no  way  of  bringing 
man  into  that  trusting,  loyal  fellowship  with  his  divine  Father  which 
is  the  essence  of  true  religion.  Hence,  Paul  frankly  declares  that,  while 
the  ancient  law  had  performed  a  great  service  in  training  men's  moral 
sense,  as  a  means  of  saving  men  from  the  consequences  of  their  igno- 
rance and  misdeeds  and  of  leading  them  into  complete  and  joyous  fel- 
lowship with  God  it  was  a  failure.  To  this  he  adds  the  revolutionary 
but  logical  conclusion  that  the  Jews  who  had  staked  their  hope  on 
keeping  the  law  were,  after  all,  on  an  equality  with  the  Gentiles.  In- 
deed, if  their  confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  the  law  had  dulled  their 
consciousness  of  the  need  of  the  personal  fellowship  with  God,  their 
lot  was  even  more  pitiable  than  that  of  the  great  heathen  world  of 
Paul's  day,  which  was  longing  and  earnestly  seeking  for  salvation  and 
unity  with  God. 

IV.  The  Influences  which  Shaped  Paul's  Conception  of  Jesus. 
Into  Paul's  life  there  had  suddenly  come  a  mighty  transforming  and 
satisfying  spiritual  experience.  Psychology  may  explain  the  form  of 
this  experience,  but  it  was  regarded  by  Paul  as  a  supreme  miracle. 
Interpreted  into  the  terms  of  the  psychology  of  his  own  day,  he  had  ex- 
perienced what  the  contemporary  mystery  religions  promised  to  their 
devotees:  God  (in  the  person  of  the  crucified  but  risen  Christ)  had 
entered  in  and  taken  possession  of  him.  This  transcendent  religious 
experience  was  repeated  at  many  later  crises  of  his  life.  That  such 
experiences  were  possible  was  almost  a  commonplace  of  contemporary 
Greek  or  Roman  religious  thought.  For  centuries  the  teachers  of 
the  Jewish  race  also  had  taught  that  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  at  times 

187 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

rushed  upon  and  took  possession  of  the  true  prophets  and  even  of 
patriotic  warriors  like  Gideon  and  Saul.  The  prophet  Joel  had  pre- 
dicted that  this  experience  would  be  shared  in  common  by  all  classes 
of  men.  The  primitive  church  at  Jerusalem  had  felt  and  seen  the 
marvellous  realization  of  this  prediction. 

In  Paul's  confession  of  faith  (Rom.  1-11)  the  influence  of  many 
other  inherited  beliefs  may  also  be  recognized.  Pharisaic  Judaism 
had  taught  him  to  believe  in  the  pre-existence  and  the  supernatural 
character  of  the  Messiah  or  Christ.  In  the  light  of  Paul's  own  experi- 
ence it  was  difficult  for  him  to  think  of  Christ,  a  spirit,  as  other  than 
ever  existent.  In  apocalyptic  passages,  like  Daniel  713,  "the  one  like 
to  the  Son  of  man"  was  represented  as  coming  from  the  heavens 
and  as  standing  beside  the  throne  of  God.  On  the  other  hand,  legal- 
istic Judaism,  as  interpreted  by  IV  Ezra,  represented  the  Messiah 
as  an  atoning  sacrifice  intended  to  propitiate  the  divine  judge.  Al- 
though not  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  contemporary  Jewish  litera- 
ture, such  as  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  II  Baruch  (4S42- 43),  and  IV 
Ezra  (37),  Adam,  the  traditional  forefather  of  the  human  race,  is  re- 
garded as  the  source  of  all  the  sin  and  woe  which  he  has  transmitted 
to  his  descendants.  The  burdening  belief  that  all  flesh  was  bowed 
to  earth  by  a  crushing,  cumulative  weight  of  sin  was  shared  alike 
by  Stoic  philosophers  and  thoughtful  Jews.  In  his  own  spiritual  ex- 
perience of  Jesus  and  in  that  of  his  fellow  Christians  Paul  found  the 
fulfilment  of  all  his  inherited  hopes  and  beliefs  and  the  solution  of  all 
his  spiritual  problems.  It  was  also  inevitable  that  he  should  interpret 
Jesus  and  his  work  in  the  light  of  these  varied  inheritances.  To  ignore 
this  fact  is  to  misinterpret  Paul  and  to  fail  to  appreciate  his  perma- 
nent contributions  to  Christianity  which  are  enmeshed  in  the  figures 
and  beliefs  of  a  bygone  age. 

V.  PauPs  Doctrine  of  Salvation  through  Faith  in  Christ. 
To  understand  Paul's  teachings  it  is  also  important  to  note  that  he 
is  fond  of  using  a  great  variety  of  figures  to  set  forth  the  same  ultimate 
truth.  This  method  is  a  characteristic  of  most  great  religious  teachers. 
The  more  important  the  truth  the  more  important  that  it  be  viewed 
from  many  points.  Paul,  in  his  endeavor  to  make  clear  what  Christ 
has  done  for  him  and  could  do  for  all  men,  used  four  familiar  figures, 
each  drawn  from  the  legal  vocabulary  of  his  age.  It  is  evident  that 
they  all  represent  the  same  vital  experience  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 
The  first,  that  of  the  redemption  or  emancipation  of  a  slave  from 
bondage,  was  grimly  suggestive  and  familiar  to  every  citizen  of  that 

188 


SALVATION  THROUGH  FAITH  IN  CHRIST 

ancient  world.  It  was  probably  suggested  by  Jesus'  words,  recorded 
in  Mark  1045:  "The  Son  of  man  has  come  not  to  be  served  but  to  serve 
(as  a  slave)  and  to  give  his  life  as  a  ransom  for  many  (slaves)."  The 
underlying  idea  is  closely  related  to  Paul's  characteristic  doctrine  of 
Christian  liberty.  By  its  use  he  declared  that  Jesus  came  to  free  men 
from  the  bondage  of  that  merely  judical  relationship  to  God  of  which 
Paul  frequently  speaks  and  which  in  his  experience  he  found  so  onerous. 
Another  figure  was  that  of  justification  or  acquittal.  This  figure,  of 
course,  was  suggested  by  the  ancient  courts  of  justice,  where  the  culprit 
was  arraigned  by  the  representatives  of  the  state  and  his  release  was 
assured  only  when  his  innocence  could  be  proved  or  palliating  circum- 
stance adduced.  Here,  as  in  each  of  these  parallel  figures,  the  domi- 
nating idea  is  that  deliverance  or  salvation  is  attained  as  the  result  of 
the  divine  love  expressed  in  the  work  and  death  of  Jesus.  A  third 
figure  was  that  of  forgiveness.  Here  the  sinner  was  thought  of  as  a 
debtor  to  whom  God  had  granted  full  forgiveness,  because  of  divine 
love  which  Jesus  supremely  exemplified  and  proclaimed.  The  fourth 
parallel  figure  was  that  of  reconciliation.  It  implied  that  the  sinner 
by  his  acts  had  put  himself  in  an  attitude  of  enmity  toward  God. 
Jesus  is  again  the  one  who  reconciles  him  to  his  divine  Father. 

It  is  significant  that  in  each  of  these  figures,  by  which  Paul  de- 
scribes the  salvation  of  the  individual,  the  work  of  an  intermediary 
between  God  and  man  is  implied,  if  not  absolutely  required.  It  em- 
phasizes the  fundamental  difference  between  Paul's  own  relation  to 
God  and  that  of  Jesus.  Jesus  did  not  desire  nor  would  he  have  toler- 
ated any  intermediary  between  himself  and  God.  Paul  and  the  great 
majority  of  his  fellow  Christians  in  the  past,  as  in  the  present,  crave 
such  an  interpreter  of  God.  In  supplying  this  practically  universal  need, 
Paul  and  the  early  apostles  made  their  supreme  contribution  to  Chris- 
tianity, for  they  proclaimed  Jesus  to  be  the  great  interpreter  of  God 
to  man.  Christ  in  man  and  man  in  Christ  made  personal  fellowship 
with  God  possible  and  easy.  Here  Paul  unconsciously  joins  hands 
with  the  Greek  mystics.  His  doctrine  of  Christ  in  him  and  he  in 
Christ  was  not  a  mere  figure  of  speech  nor  a  dogma;  it  was  a  deep, 
transforming,  spiritual  experience  which  freed  him  from  his  conscious- 
ness of  sin  and  gave  him  instead  a  consciousness  of  fellowship  with 
God.  Sometimes  Paul  attributed  this  mystic  experience  to  the  pres- 
ence of  Christ,  sometimes  to  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  and  sometimes  to 
the  Spirit  of  God  within  him.  In  Romans  89"11  he  uses  these  three 
synonyms  together:  "But  you  are  not  in  the  flesh  but  in  the  spirit,  if 

189 


PAUL'S  INTERPRETATION  OF  JESUS'  WORK 

the  Spirit  of  God  dwells  in  you.  Any  one  who  does  not  have  the  Spirit 
of  Christ  does  not  belong  to  him;  but  if  Christ  is  within  you,  though  the 
body  is  dead  as  a  result  of  sin,  the  spirit  is  living  as  a  result  of  righteous- 
ness. And  if  the  Spirit  of  him  who  raised  up  Jesus  from  the  dead 
dwells  within  you,  then  he  who  raised  Christ  Jesus  from  the  dead  will 
also  make  your  immortal  bodies  live  because  his  Spirit  is  dwelling 
within  you."  Like  certain  of  the  early  writers  in  Acts,  Paul  evidently 
uses  the  terms  "Spirit  of  Jesus,"  "Holy  Spirit,"  and  "Spirit  of  God" 
interchangeably.  The  ultimate  basis  of  his  mysticism  is  the  contrast 
between  a  life  governed  by  the  fleshly  passions  and  a  life  governed  by 
the  higher  spiritual  emotions  which  find  their  source  and  inspiration 
in  God.  It  is  a  life  of  fellowship  and  loyal  co-operation  with  God 
made  possible  as  the  individual  is  touched  by  the  personality  and  in- 
spired by  the  teachings  of  Jesus.  It  is  this  spiritual  experience  which 
Paul  describes  by  his  favorite  term  "faith  in  Christ."  It  is  not  mere 
subscription  to  articles  of  belief,  but  it  is  the  effect  of  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  at  wrork  in  the  heart  of  the  individual.  It  is  the  spirit  of  love 
which  Jesus  proclaimed  and  exemplified,  which  transforms  men  into 
his  likeness  and  binds  them  together  in  loyal,  devoted,  self-sacrificing 
service  of  the  great  brotherhood  which  he  founded.  When  this  Spirit 
is  at  work  in  the  heart  of  a  man  his  past  sins  and  his  evil  habits  no 
longer  have  power  over  him;  he  is  conscious  of  God's  forgiveness,  and 
is  invincible  against  the  pains  and  perils  of  life,  for  he  is  "  more  than  a 
conqueror  through  him  who  loved  us."  No  power  in  heaven  or  earth 
can  separate  him  "  from  God's  love  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord."  It  is 
thus  that  men  are  saved  through  faith  in  Christ.  Well  is  this  trans- 
forming spiritual  process  described  in  the  primitive  Christian  prayer 
preserved  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles:  "We  thank  thee, 
our  Father,  for  the  life  and  the  knowledge  which  thou  hast  made  known 
to  us  through  Jesus  thy  Servant." 

§CLXI.    PAUL'S   SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

I  beseech  you,  therefore,  brothers,  on  account  of  the 
mercies  of  God,  dedicate  your  bodies  as  a  living  sacrifice, 
holy  and  acceptable  to  God,  for  this  is  your  reasonable 
service.  And  do  not  be  moulded  in  conformity  to  this  world, 
but  be  transformed  through  the  complete  renewal  of  your 
mind,  so  that  you  may  be  able  to  make  out  what  is  the  will 
of  God,  even  what  is  good  and  acceptable  and  perfect. 

190 


EACH  TO  DO  HIS  TASK 

By  virtue  of  the  divine  authority  granted  to  me,  I  charge  Each 
every  one  of  you  not  to  think  of  himself  more  than  he  ought  Jaith- 
to  think;  but  so  to  think  that  he  will  attain  a  sane  estimate  gjuy 
of  himself  according  to  the  degree  of  faith  which  God  hath  task 
apportioned  to  each.     For  just  as  in  our  one  body  we  have  ^£ich 
many  members,  and  all  the  members  do  not  have  the  same  ge  js 
functions,  so  we,  though  many,  are  one  body  in  Christ  and   (»-«)e 
we  are  each  members  one  with  another.    We  have  different 
gifts  according  to  the  grace  that  is  given  us ;  if  it  is  prophecy 
let  us  use  it  in  proportion  to  our  faith;  if  practical  service, 
in  practical  service ;  the  teacher  must  do  the  same  in  teach- 
ing; he  who  exhorts  in  his  exhortation;  he  who  gives  must 
do  it  liberally;  he  who  is  an  authority  must  be  in  earnest; 
he  who  does  acts  of  mercy  must  do  them  cheerfully. 

Let  love  be  without  hypocrisy;  abhor  what  is  evil,  cleave  in  his 
to  what  is  good.    In  your  love  for  your  brothers  feel  true  l^1 
affection  for  one  another.    In  matters  of  honor  yield  to  one  gon 
another.    Be  not  lacking  in  zeal;  keep  alive  the  spiritual  feiiow 
glow;  serve  the  Lord;  rejoice  in  your  hope;  be  steadfast  in  S£f"- 
trouble,  persistent  in  prayer;  contribute  to  the  needs  of  <£"■  * 
the   saints,  constantly  practise  hospitality.    Rejoice  with 
those  who  rejoice  and  weep  with  those  who  weep.    Think 
in  harmony  one  with  another.     Strive  not  for  the  high  things, 
but  associate  with  the  humble.     Do  not  be  self-conceited. 

Bless  those  who  persecute  you,  bless  and  curse  them  not.  The 
Do  not  pay  back  evil  for  evU  to  anyone;  take  thought  for  §£S" 
what  is  seemly  in  the  eyes  of  all.    If  possible,  as  far  as  it  atti- 
depends  on  you,  live  at  peace  with  all  men.    Never  revenge  toward 
yourselves,  beloved,  but  give  place  to  the  wrath  of  God;  ^!.^.en 
for  it  is  written,  Vengeance  is  mine,  I  will  repay,  saith  the  21) 
Lord.    Rather,  if  your  enemy  is  hungry  feed  him,  if  he  is 
thirsty  give  him  drink;  for  in  so  doing  you  will  heap  coals  of 
fire  on  his  head.    Be  not  conquered  by  evil,  but  conquer 
evil  by  doing  good. 

Every  individual  must  obey  those  who  rule  over  him,  for  The 
there  is  no  authority  apart  from  God;  the  existing  author-  §^|" 
ities  have  been  constituted  by  God.    Therefore,  whoever  duty  to 
resists  authority  is  resisting  the  order  established  by  God,  author- 
and  they  who  oppose  will  bring  judgment  on  themselves.  JJJmj 
For  rulers  are  no  terror  to  right-doers  but  to  wrong-doers. 

191 


PAUL'S  SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

You  wish,  do  you  not,  to  have  no  fear  of  authority?    Then 
do  what  is  right  and  you  will  be  commended  by  it,  for  a 
ruler  is  the  servant  of  God  for  your  good.    But  if  you  do 
wrong,  you  have  cause  to  fear,  for  he  does  not  bear  the 
sword  for  nothing,  for  he  is  God's  servant  to  inflict  divine 
punishment  upon  evil-doers.    It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  we  should  obey,  not  only  to  avoid  divine  vengeance, 
but  also  for  conscience'  sake.    For  this  same  reason  we 
pay  taxes,  for  tax  collectors  are  God's  servants,  devoting 
their  energies  to  this  very  thing.    Render  to  all  their  dues, 
tribute  to  whom  tribute  is  due,  taxes  to  whom  taxes,  respect 
to  whom  respect,  and  honor  to  whom  honor  is  due. 
to  ws        Owe  no  man  anything,  except  to  love  one  another,  for  he 
menW     who  loves  his  fellow  man  has  fulfilled  the  law.    For  the 
(810)       commands,  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery,  thou  shalt 
not  kill,  thou  shalt  not  steal,  thou  shalt  not  covet,  these  and 
all  other  commands  are  summed  up  in  this  one  word,  Thou 
shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.    Love  does  no  wrong  to 
a  neighbor;  therefore  love  is  the  fulfillment  of  the  law. 
obiiga-       You  also  know  what  this  crisis  means:  that  it  is  high 
ofThe     time  to  arouse  ourselves  from  sleep,  for  salvation  is  nearer 
present  f0  us  now  fa^  when  we  first  believed.    The  night  is  far 
(12-H)      advanced,  the  day  is  near.    Let  us,  therefore,  lay  aside  the 
deeds  of  darkness  and  put  on  the  armour  of  light.    Let  us 
behave  ourselves  becomingly,  as  in  the  light  of  day  without 
revelry  or  drunkenness,  without  lust  or  sensuality,  without 
quarrelling  or  jealousy.    Rather  let  us  put  on  the  character 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  make  no  provision  for  gratify- 
ing the  cravings  of  the  flesh. 
Toiera-      Receive  a  man  of  weak  faith,  but  not  to  pass  judgment 
toward  upon  his  scruples.     One  man  has  faith  enough  to  eat  all 
({J?.™)    things;  while  the  man  of  weak  faith  eats  only  vegetables. 
Let  not  the  one  who  eats  look  down  upon  the  one  who  does 
not  eat,  nor  let  the  man  who  does  not  eat  condemn  him 
who  eats  all  things,  for  God  hath  received  him.    Who  are 
you   that   you   should   criticize   the   servant   of   another  ? 
Whether  he  stands  or  falls  concerns  only  his  own  Master, 
and  stand  he  will  for  the  Master  hath  power  to  make  him 
stand.     One  man  rates  one  day  above  another,  while  an- 
other man  rates  all  days  alike.    Let  every  man  be  fully 

192 


TOLERATION  OF  OTHERS'   CONVICTIONS 

convinced  in  his  own  mind.  He  who  rates  highly  a  cer- 
tain day  does  it  for  the  Lord.  The  eater  also  eats  to  the 
Lord,  for  he  gives  thanks  to  God ;  and  he  who  refrains  from 
eating,  refrains  for  the  Lord's  sake  and  he  also  gives  thanks 
to  God.  For  none  of  us  lives  for  himself  and  none  of  us 
dies  for  himself;  for  if  we  live,  we  live  for  the  Lord,  and  if 
we  die,  we  die  for  the  Lord.  Thus  whether  we  live  or 
whether  we  die,  we  are  the  Lord's.  It  was  for  this  that 
Christ  died  and  lives  again  in  order  that  he  might  be  the 
Lord  both  of  the  dead  and  of  the  living.  And  why  do  you 
criticize  your  brother?  Or  you,  why  do  you  look  down  upon 
your  brother?  All  of  us  will  have  to  stand  before  God's 
tribunal,  for  it  is  written: 

As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord, 

Every  knee  shall  bend  before  me, 

And  every  tongue  shall  make  confession  to  God. 

Every  one  of  us,  therefore,  will  have  to  give  an  account 
of  himself  to  God. 

Therefore,  let  us  no  longer  criticize  one  another.    Rather  con- 
make  this  decision,  never  to  put  any  stumbling  block  or  tlonra" 
hindrance  in  your  brother's  way.     I  know  and  am  convinced  f°^£; 
in  Christ  that  nothing  is  in  itself  unclean,  except  that  it  is  con-rs 
unclean  to  the  man  who  considers  it  unclean.    If  your  JJ^f 
brother  is  being  troubled  because  of  food  that  you  eat,  then  scru- 
you  are  no  longer  living  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  love,  ft 
Do  not  by  the  food  that  you  eat  ruin  that  man  for  whom 
Christ  died.    Therefore  let  not  what  is  good  for  you  become 
a  cause  of  reproach,  for  the  Kingdom  of  God  is  not  a  matter 
of  eating  and  drinking,  but  of  righteousness,  peace,  and 
joy  in  the  Holy  Spirit.     He  who  serves  Christ  in  this  way 
is  acceptable  to  God  and  esteemed  by  men. 

We  who  are  strong  ought  to  bear  the  infirmities  of  the  qbuga- 
weak,  and  not  to  please  ourselves.    Each  of  us  should  {jfwfrd 
please  his  neighbor  in  order  to   do  him  good  by  building  *£* 
him  up.    And  this  is  our  duty,  for  Christ  did  not  please   us1-*) 
himself,  but,  as  it  is  written,  The  reproaches  of  those  who 
reproached  thee  fell  on  me.    For  what  was  written  of  old 
was  written  for  our  instruction,  that  through  our  stead- 
fastness and  the  encouragement  of  the  scriptures,  we  might 

193 


PAUL'S  SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

have  hope.  May  the  God  who  inspires  steadfastness  and 
encouragement  grant  to  you  that  you  may  think  in  such 
harmony,  one  with  another,  after  the  example  of  Christ 
Jesus,  that  with  one  heart  and  voice  you  will  glorify  the 
God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
The  Therefore,  welcome  one  another,  as  Christ  has  welcomed 

STboth  you,  for  the  glory  of  God.  Christ,  I  say,  became  a  servant 
Jewish  f0  the  circumcised  in  order  to  vindicate  God' s  truthfulness 
Gentile  in  showing  how  sure  are  the  promises  given  to  our  forefathers 
ersU(e£)  and  also  that  the  Gentiles  might  glorify  God  for  his  mercy. 
Even  so  it  is  written,  For  this  reason  I  will  praise  thee  among 
the  Gentiles  and  sing  to  thy  name. 
The  My  aim  has  been  to  make  the  Gentiles  an  offering  ac- 

Ifm  in    ceptable  to  God  and  consecrated  by  the  Holy  Spirit.    There- 
Pauis    for6j  J  have  cause  to  be  proud  in  Christ  Jesus  of  the  work 
work      which  I  have  done  for  God,  for  I  will  not  presume  to  speak 
(16b21)     of  anything  except  what  Christ  has  accomplished  through 
me  in  securing  the  obedience  of  the  Gentiles,  by  word  and 
deed,  by  means  of  signs  and  miracles,  and  by  the  power 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.    The  fact  is  that,  from  Jerusalem  around 
as  far  as  IUyricum,  I  have  proclaimed  fully  the  gospel  of 
Christ.    My  ambition,  however,  has  always  been  to  preach 
the  gospel  only  where  Christ's  name  had  not  been  men- 
tioned lest  I  should  be  building  on  a  foundation  laid  by 
another  man,  but,  as  it  is  written, 

That  they  might  see  to  whom  no  report  about  him 
had  come, 

That  those  who  had  not  heard  of  him  should  under- 
stand. 

I.  The  Two  Sides  of  Paul's  Personality  and  Teaching.  Paul's 
breadth  and  greatness  are  attested  by  the  fact  that  throughout  the 
ages  the  most  diverse  types  of  mind  have  found  in  him  their  supreme 
inspiration.  Ignatius,  Luther,  and  Calvin  are  only  a  few  of  his  many 
devoted,  spiritual  disciples.  For  eighteen  centuries  each  generation 
has  taken  from  Paul  that  which  most  appealed  to  its  interests  and 
needs  and  left  the  rest  of  his  teachings  almost  untouched.  A  theo- 
logical age  found  in  Paul's  writings  the  materials  from  which  it  recon- 
structed a  complete  metaphysical  system.     Now,  in  the  present  strongly 

194 


THE  TWO  SIDES  OF  PAUL 

social  age,  Paul  promises  still  to  hold  his  place  as  a  moulder  of  Chris- 
tian thought.  The  explanation  of  this  marvel  is  Paul  himself.  At 
heart  he  was  a  mystic,  but,  unlike  most  mystics,  he  was  intensely  prac- 
tical. This  fact  alone  saved  his  theology  from  becoming  mere  vague 
mysticism  or  cold  philosophy.  His  head  was  often  in  the  clouds,  but 
his  feet  were  always  planted  squarely  on  earth.  Faith  meant  every- 
thing to  him,  and  yet  in  many  of  his  writings  he  asserted  in  most 
practical  terms  that  "faith  without  works  is  dead."  This  unique 
combination  of  mysticism  and  the  strongly  ethical  and  social  interpre- 
tation of  religion  is  undoubtedly  the  explanation  of  his  continuous 
leadership.  Men  to-day  may  reject  many  of  his  theoretical  doctrines, 
but  they  cannot  escape  the  charm  and  inspiration  of  his  practical 
ethics.  This  rare  combination  of  the  mystic  and  social  teacher  is 
due  to  Paul's  personality  and  training.  His  peculiar  type  of  mind 
and  his  unique  psychological  experiences  made  him  a  mystic.  The 
apocalyptic  tendencies  of  contemporary  Pharisaism  undoubtedly  in- 
tensified this  tendency.  On  the  other  hand,  his  early  study  of  the 
Jewish  law  forever  fixed  in  his  mind  the  practical,  social  concept  of 
religion.  This  precipitate  remained  long  after  he  had  rejected  the 
ceremonial  side  of  the  law.  This  tendency  was  strengthened  by  his 
study  of  the  ethical  prophets  and  by  his  knowledge  of  the  practical 
problems  that  were  constantly  arising  in  the  lives  of  the  Christians 
who  looked  to  him  for  pastoral  guidance. 

II.  Paul's  Reassertion  of  Jesus'  Social  Teachings.  The 
great  force,  however,  which  made  Paul  a  strong  social  teacher  was  his 
familiarity  with  Jesus'  social  teachings.  Paul  was  intensely  interested 
in  his  own  theories  about  Jesus;  but  it  was  in  the  field  of  practical 
social  ethics  that  the  great  apostle  stands  closest  to  his  Master.  That 
this  should  be  true  was  natural,  for  the  heart  of  Jesus'  teachings  was 
ethical  and  social.  Evidently  Paul  had  a  more  extensive  and  intimate 
knowledge  of  these  teachings  than  is  generally  recognized.  His  oppor- 
tunities for  gaining  this  knowledge  were  many,  for  he  came  into  intimate 
and  repeated  contact  with  the  disciples  of  Jesus  while  the  first  im- 
pression of  their  Master's  work  and  teachings  were  still  upon  them. 
Evidently  Paul  also  had  in  certain  respects  a  more  extensive  acquain- 
tance with  certain  of  Jesus'  teachings  than  is  reflected  in  our  gospel 
records.  This  fact  is  obscured,  however,  by  Paul's  peculiar  method  of 
quoting.  Even  his  direct  citations  from  the  Old  Testament  are  rarely 
reproduced  with  absolute  accuracy.  It  was  more  natural  for  him  to 
paraphrase  and  interpret  than  to  quote  verbatim.     Ordinarily  he  did 

195 


PAUL'S  SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

not  believe  it  necessary  to  state  that  he  was  reproducing  Jesus'  teach- 
ings, for  he  assumed  that  practically  all  that  he  proclaimed  was  based 
on  those  teachings.  Also  he  felt  the  living  spirit  of  Jesus  working  in 
his  mind  and  prompting  his  every  word.  It  was  only  when  he  was  in 
doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  he  was  reproducing  his  Master's  teachings, 
as  in  I  Corinthians  7,  that  he  plainly  states  this  fact.  Hence,  there 
are  good  grounds  for  believing  that  in  the  field  of  social  ethics  Paul  is 
simply  interpreting  Jesus'  teachings  and  that  he  has  thus  preserved 
certain  elements  not  found  in  our  four  gospels.  This  conclusion  is 
strongly  confirmed  by  a  careful  examination  of  Romans  12  and  13, 
where  in  a  majority  of  the  cases  the  underlying  principle  can  be  di- 
rectly traced  to  the  lips  of  Jesus. 

III.  Paul's  Restatement  of  Jesus'  Social  Ideal.  Paul,  like 
Jesus,  began  not  with  organized  society  but  with  the  individual,  and 
sought  to  develop  socially  minded  citizens  as  the  foundation  for  an  ideal 
social  order.  Like  his  Master,  he  dealt  primarily  not  with  external 
acts,  but  with  inner  motives.  He  recognized  that  the  individual  must 
first  be  socially  redeemed,  transformed,  and  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  God  and  society.  His  thoughts  and  character  must  be  moulded, 
not  only  by  circumstances  and  social  conventions,  but  above  all  by 
loyalty  to  the  will  of  God  and  to  the  interests  of  the  Christian  commu- 
nity. After  he  has  made  this  complete  self-sacrifice  to  the  service  of 
God  and  his  Kingdom,  it  is  easy  for  each  man  to  find  his  own  individual 
task  in  the  church  and  in  society  and  to  perform  it  efficiently.  In 
Paul's  mind  the  perfect  social  order  is  the  "one  body  in  Christ,"  of 
which  all  his  faithful  followers  are  members.  It  is  unimportant  that 
individual  talents  differ;  the  one  essential  is  that  each  use  his  own  for 
the  largest  profit  of  the  community.  Here,  as  in  I  Corinthians  and 
Ephesians,  he  built  on  the  foundations  laid  by  Jesus  in  his  parables 
regarding  the  Kingdom  of  God;  but  the  details  are  determined  by  Paul's 
own  personal  experience.  The  Christian  communities  which  he  had 
founded  had  given  him  a  vision  of  the  perfect  community,  bound  to- 
gether by  the  spirit  and  principles  of  Christ.  In  his  vision  he  saw 
this  ideal  community  growing  and  extending,  even  as  the  Christian 
church  was  then  rapidly  extending,  until  it  included  all  mankind. 
Paul,  in  his  loyal  service  to  the  local  communities,  which  were  the  pro- 
totype of  the  all-embracing  community  of  the  saints  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  future,  had  himself  attained  personal  salvation,  liberty, 
and  fulness  of  life.  Therefore  he  pointed  out  to  his  fellow  Christians 
the  same  sure  and  satisfying  way  of  salvation  and  life.    He  declared 

196 


HIS  RESTATEMENT  OF  JESUS'  SOCIAL  IDEAL 

by  implication  that,  instead  of  losing  their  life,  they  also  could  find 
it  through  loyalty  to  the  ideal  of  the  perfect  community  and  in  work- 
ing for  its  establishment.  In  its  glories  each  individual  would  attain 
the  complete  expression  of  his  own  highest  aspirations;  in  its  fellow- 
ship the  full  satisfaction  of  his  social  craving;  in  its  service  the 
development  of  his  noblest  gifts.  This  community  of  the  socially  re- 
deemed, which  Paul  called  the  "Body  of  Christ,"  is  not  a  mere  mys- 
tical abstraction  but  a  perfectly  practical  social  ideal.  In  Paul's 
day  each  local  Christian  community  gave  to  the  individual  Christian 
the  field  and  the  definite  objective  needed  to  develop  his  loyalty  to 
the  ideal  community.  Here,  as  always,  Paul  makes  a  complete  and 
natural  synthesis  of  the  ideal  and  the  practical.  In  so  doing  he  has 
presented  a  working  social  programme  as  applicable  to  the  needs  of 
society  to-day  and  in  the  future  as  it  was  in  the  first  Christian  cen- 
tury. 

IV.  The  Christian's  Responsibility  as  a  Member  of  Society. 
Jesus  simply  presented  social  principles;  but  Paul  in  his  fervent  zeal 
to  develop  efficient  loyalty  to  the  ideal  community  (which  occupied 
the  central  place  in  his  vision  of  the  future)  lays  down  many  definite 
laws  and  commands.  He  also  sets  forth  his  specific  social  teachings 
in  systematic  order  and  in  a  most  condensed  yet  forceful  form.  In 
Romans  129-16  he  defines  the  Christian's  responsibilities  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  community.  Verse  14  clearly  belongs  with  the 
next  section  (17"21),  which  describes  the  Christian's  obligations  to  those 
outside  the  community.  In  131"7  he  discusses  the  Christian's  obli- 
gations to  civil  authorities.  In  verses  8"10  he  stresses  the  underlying 
and  all-comprehending  principle  of  love.  Love  is  indeed  the  golden 
strand  that  runs  through  all  of  Paul's  social  teachings.  He  begins 
with  the  command,  "Let  love  be  without  hypocrisy,"  and  ends  with 
the  quotation,  "Love  is  the  fulfillment  of  the  law."  His  social  teach- 
ings as  a  whole  are  simply  a  practical,  detailed  application  of  the  Golden 
Rule  to  the  problems  of  the  individual  in  his  relation  to  society.  Jesus' 
beatitude,  "Happy  are  the  peacemakers,"  becomes  on  the  lips  of 
Paul  a  definite  command:  "Think  in  harmony  one  with  another." 
"Happy  are  the  humble"  and  "Happy  are  the  poor  in  spirit"  are 
also  transformed  into  the  definite  commands:  "Strive  not  for  the 
high  things  but  associate  with  the  humble"  and  "Do  not  be  self -con- 
ceited." The  Master's  command,  "Love  your  enemies,"  on  the  lips 
of  Paul  becomes,  "Bless  those  who  persecute  you,  bless  and  curse 
them  not."    Paul  also  concludes  his  recapitulation  of  the  Christian's 

197 


PAUL'S  SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

responsibilities  with  the  powerful,  positive  command:  "Be  not  con- 
quered by  evil,  but  conquer  evil  by  doing  good,"  which  is  a  splendid 
summary  of  the  principles  which  underlie  both  Jesus'  social  teachings 
and  method. 

Throughout  Paul's  discussion  of  the  Christian's  obligations  to  or- 
ganized society  we  recognize  the  influence  of  Jesus'  broad  principle: 
"Render  to  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's  and  to  God  the  things 
that  are  God's."  In  the  concluding  sentence  Paul  quotes  almost  ver- 
batim the  words  of  his  Master,  expanding  them  freely,  however :  "Render 
to  all  their  dues,  tribute  to  whom  tribute  is  due,  taxes  to  whom  taxes, 
respect  to  whom  respect  and  honor  to  whom  honor  is  due."  In  his 
interpretation  of  Jesus'  principle  Paul  shows  the  influence  of  his  Ro- 
man citizenship,  of  his  cosmopolitan  training,  and  of  his  practical 
statesmanship.  His  assertion  of  the  divine  authority  of  rulers  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  Jesus'  rather  contemptuous  estimate  of  the 
men  who  play  the  tyrant  over  their  subjects.  The  context  implies 
that  Paul  had  in  mind  simply  those  rulers  who  proved  by  their  acts 
that  they  were  "servants  of  God."  His  aim  is  evidently  to  deliver  the 
Christians  from  conflict  with  the  pagan  authorities,  but  the  working 
principles  which  he  lays  down  are  intensely  practical  through  all 
ages.  Nowhere  can  one  find  in  such  condensed  form  a  more  exact 
statement  of  a  theory  of  government,  of  its  obligations  to  the  individual 
citizen,  and  of  the  duties  of  a  citizen  to  the  state. 

V.  The  Christian's  Duties  of  Toleration  and  Consideration 
for  Others.  It  has  been  asserted  that  Paul's  "outlook  is  almost 
devoid  of  social  elements"  and  that  the  hope  of  the  speedy  second 
coming  of  Jesus  destroyed  his  interest  in  society.  Carried  to  its 
logical  conclusion,  this  result  would  seem  to  a  superficial  reader  in- 
evitable; but  exactly  the  opposite  effect  is  discernible.  Instead  of 
encouraging  his  converts  to  sit  with  idle  hands  awaiting  the  great 
consummation,  which  he,  as  an  heir  to  the  Jewish  apocalyptic  hopes, 
regarded  as  imminent,  Paul  encouraged  them  to  discharge  all  their 
social  obligations  with  the  greatest  care  and  consideration.  His  be- 
lief that  the  "night  is  far  advanced  and  that  the  day  is  near"  only 
intensified  his  social  consciousness.  The  explanation  is  that  he  re- 
garded the  Christian  church  already  established  and  rapidly  expand- 
ing as  the  foundation  of  the  new  world-wide  community  that  was  to 
be  perfected  at  the  second  coming  of  Jesus. 

Paul's  breadth  is  also  revealed  in  the  principles  which  he  laid  down 
regarding  toleration  toward  others.     The  man  of  weak  faith,  whom  he 

198 


TOLERATION  AND   CONSIDERATION  FOR  OTHERS 

had  in  mind,  was  the  one  limited  by  the  conventional  conceptions  of 
religion.  It  was  the  type  of  man  who  regarded  the  observation  of 
certain  ritualistic  forms  and  of  days  of  feasting  or  fasting  as  abso- 
lutely essential.  Evidently  Paul  himself  did  not  share  these  beliefs; 
but  he  contended  as  earnestly  for  the  liberty  of  personal  judgment 
for  the  man  with  whom  he  did  not  agree  as  he  did  for  his  own.  Each 
man,  as  he  convincingly  argues,  is  simply  responsible  to  God.  Here 
again  it  seems  probable  that  Paul  is  standing  squarely  on  principles 
proclaimed  by  Jesus  and  implied,  though  not  recorded,  in  our  gospels. 
It  was  this  principle  which  determined  the  attitude  of  Jesus,  as  well  as 
Paul,  toward  the  ceremonial  institutions  of  Judaism.  Underlying 
Paul's  command  not  to  criticise  nor  look  down  upon  a  brother  Christian 
one  sees  clearly  Jesus'  teaching:  "Judge  not  that  you  be  not  judged." 
Also  his  command  not  to  put  a  stumbling-block  or  hinderance  in  a 
brother's  way  is  but  Paul's  free  paraphrase  of  Jesus'  words:  "Woe  to 
you  who  cause  any  of  these  little  ones  to  stumble."  With  rare  effec- 
tiveness and  felicity  Paul  lays  down  the  comprehensive  Christian  prin- 
ciple that  the  larger  responsibility  to  show  toleration  and  considera- 
tion to  the  brother  of  more  limited  vision  rests  upon  the  man  of  broader 
faith  and  outlook.  He  is  the  one  who  should  be  supremely  governed 
by  the  law  of  love.  The  context  also  implies  that  the  significant 
saying: 

The  Kingdom  of  God  is  not  a  matter  of  eating  and  drinking, 
But  of  righteousness,  peace,  and  joy, 

came  directly  from  the  lips  of  Jesus. 

VI.     The  Christian's  Obligation   to   Men  of  All   Races.    In 

conclusion  Paul  suggests  the  Christian's  larger  missionary  obligations 
to  the  Gentile  world.  He  presents  this  responsibility,  not  in  the  form 
of  a  direct  command,  but  first  by  pointing  out  the  fact  that  Jesus' 
work  was  done  that  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  "might  glorify  God  for 
his  mercy."  He  then  adds  that  his  own  primary  aim  as  an  apostle 
has  been  to  bring  the  Gentiles  into  harmony  with  God's  purpose.  He 
declares  that  his  great  ambition  has  been  to  preach  the  Gospel  where 
before  Christ's  name  had  not  been  mentioned.  Paul  wisely  leaves  to 
each  individual  Christian  the  application  of  the  principle  so  nobly 
illustrated  by  his  own  example  and  by  that  of  his  Master. 

Thus,  Paul's  teachings  regarding  the  social  responsibilities  of  each 
Christian  may  be  briefly  summarized  under  six  heads:  (1)  To  give  him- 
self completely  to  the  service  of  his  divine  Master.     (2)  To  use  each 

199 


PAUL'S  SOCIAL  TEACHINGS 

and  all  of  his  talents  in  behalf  of  "the  body  of  Christ."  (3)  To  show 
to  his  fellow  citizens  in  this  ideal  commonwealth  justice,  love,  consider- 
ation, and  hospitality.  (4)  To  regard  all  men  of  every  shade  of  faith 
in  the  spirit  of  love  and  forgiveness  and  to  serve  them  as  opportunity 
offers.  (5)  To  pay  to  the  state  its  dues  and  to  respect  and  obey  its 
rulers.  (6)  To  extend  to  the  Gentiles  everywhere  the  hand  of  Chris- 
tian fellowship,  to  proclaim  to  them  the  Gospel  of  the  Master,  and  by 
these  means  to  attract  them  to  the  ranks  of  those  who  are  loyally 
working  for  that  perfect  community  which  is  ultimately  to  include 
all  mankind.  Thus,  nobly  and  practically,  in  the  concrete  terms  of 
love  and  loyalty  and  service,  Paul  interpreted  Jesus'  great  social 
command  to  "seek  first  the  Kingdom  of  God." 

§CLXH.    PAUL'S  LAST  JOURNEY  TO  JERUSALEM 

Paul's        When  we  had  torn  ourselves  away  from  the  presbyters  of 
voyage  Ephesus  and  had  set  sail,  we  ran  in  a  straight  course  to 
*8J"     Cos;  on  the  next  day  to  Rhodes,  and  from  there  to  Patera. 
(Acts     Finding  a  ship  bound  for  Phoenicia,  we  embarked  and  set 
2|17)      sail.    After  sighting  Cyprus  and  leaving  it  on  our  left,  we 
sailed  for  Syria  and  landed  at  Tyre,  for  there  the  ship  was 
to  unload  her  cargo.    After  we  had  searched  out  the  dis- 
ciples, we  remained  there  seven  days.     Certain  of  these 
disciples  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  kept  telling 
Paul  not  to  set  foot  in  Jerusalem;  but  when  our  time  was  up, 
we  set  out  and  went  our  way,  escorted  until  we  were  out 
of  the  city  by  all  of  them,  including  women  and  children. 
Then  kneeling  on  the  beach  we  prayed  and  said  good-bye 
to  one  another.    While  we  went  on  board  the  ship,  they  re- 
turned home.     Sailing  from  Tyre  to  Ptolemais,  we  com- 
pleted our  voyage.     Then  after  we  had  saluted  the  brothers, 
we  spent  one  day  with  them. 
ms  ex-       Setting  out  the  next  morning,  we  came  to  Caesarea  and 
en?e  at  entered  the  house  of  Philip,  the  evangelist,  who  was  one  of 
£gsa-    the  seven,  and  stayed  with  him.    Now  he  had  four  un- 
(8-m)      married  daughters  who  prophesied.    While  we  remained 
there  many  days  a  certain  prophet  by  the  name  of  Agabus 
came  down  from  Judea.     Coming  to  us,  he  took  Paul's 
girdle  and  bound  his  own  feet  and  hands,  saying,  Thus 
saith  the  Holy  Spirit,  *  So  shall  the  Jews  bind  the  owner  of 

200 


PAUL'S  EXPERIENCE  AT  C.ESAREA 

this  girdle  and  hand  him  over  to  the  Gentiles.'  When  we 
heard  these  words,  we  and  those  who  dwelt  at  Csesarea  be- 
sought Paul  not  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem;  but  Paul  replied, 
What  do  you  mean  by  weeping  and  breaking  my  heart? 
For  I  am  ready  not  only  to  be  bound  but  to  die  in  Jerusalem 
for  the  sake  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  When  he  would  not  be 
persuaded,  we  ceased  speaking,  saying,  May  the  Lord's 
will  be  done. 

After  some  days,  we  packed  up  our  baggage  and  set  out  His 
for  Jerusalem.    And  certain  of  the  disciples  from  Csesarea  ^iyal 
accompanied  us,  conducting  us  to  the  house  of  a  certain  Jeju- 
Mnason,  a  native  of  Cyprus,  one  of  the  early  disciples  with  o^? 
whom  we  were  to  lodge.    When  we  arrived  at  Jerusalem 
the  brothers  received  us  gladly. 

On  the  next  day  Paul  went  with  us  to  James.    All  the  Recep- 
presbyters  were  present  and,  after  saluting  them,  Paul  told  je°ru-at 
in  detail  all  that  God  had  done  through  his  ministry  among  saiem 
the  Gentiles;  and  when  they  heard  it  they  glorified  God. 

They  also  said  to  him,  Brother,  you  see  how  many  tens  of  The 
thousands  there  are  among  the  Jews  who  believe  and  that  Som- 
ali of  them  zealously  uphold  the  law.  Now  they  have  been  fe  the 
told  that  you  teach  all  Jews  who  live  among  the  Gentiles  (*™> 
to  break  away  from  Moses  and  that  you  tell  them  not  to 
circumcise  their  children  and  not  to  follow  the  old  customs. 
What  now  is  to  be  done  ?  They  are  sure  to  hear  that  you 
have  arrived,  therefore  do  what  we  say.  We  have  four 
men  here  who  have  taken  a  vow  upon  themselves.  As- 
sociate with  them,  purify  yourself  with  them,  and  pay  their 
expenses  that  they  may  shave  their  heads  and  all  will 
know  that  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  stories  about  you 
but  that  you  are  orthodox  and  that  you  yourself  keep  the 
law.  As  for  the  Gentile  believers,  we  have  communicated 
to  them  our  decision  that  they  must  abstain  from  those 
things  which  have  been  offered  to  idols,  from  blood,  from 
the  flesh  of  animals  which  have  been  strangled  and  from 
sexual  vice.  Then  Paul  associated  himself  with  the  men 
the  next  day,  was  purified  along  with  them,  and  went  into 
the  temple,  announcing  when  the  days  of  purification  would 
be  completed,  that  is,  when  sacrifice  could  be  offered  for 
each  of  them. 

201 


PAUL'S  LAST  JOURNEY  TO  JERUSALEM 

But  when  the  seven  days  were  almost  over,  certain  Jews 
from  the  province  of  Asia,  seeing  Paul  in  the  temple,  stirred 
up  all  the  crowd  and  laid  hands  on  him,  shouting,  Men  of 
Israel,  help !  This  is  the  man  who  teaches  all  men  every- 
where against  the  Jewish  people  and  the  law  and  this 
place.  Aid  besides  he  has  even  brought  Greeks  into  the 
temple  and  desecrated  this  holy  place.  (For  they  had 
previously  seen  Trophimus,  the  Ephesian,  with  him  in  the 
city  whom  they  supposed  Paul  had  taken  into  the  temple.) 
The  whole  city  was  aroused  and  the  people  rushed  to- 
gether and  seized  Paul  and  dragged  him  outside  the  temple, 
and  immediately  the  gates  were  closed. 

But  while  the  people  were  seeking  to  kill  Paul,  word 
came  to  the  commander  of  the  garrison  that  all  Jerusalem 
was  in  confusion.  Immediately  taking  some  soldiers  and 
officers,  he  rushed  down  to  them.  But  when  they  saw  the 
commander  and  the  soldiers  they  ceased  beating  Paul. 
Then  the  commander  drew  near  and  arrested  him  and 
ordered  him  to  be  bound  with  two  chains.  And  he  in- 
quired, Who  is  he  and  what  has  he  done  ?  Some  of  the 
crowd  shouted  one  thing,  some  another;  but  when  he  could 
not  learn  the  exact  truth  on  account  of  the  uproar,  he 
ordered  Paul  to  be  led  into  the  barracks.  But  when  Paul 
was  at  the  steps,  he  had  to  be  carried  by  the  soldiers  on 
account  of  the  violence  of  the  crowd,  for  the  whole  multi- 
tude of  the  people  followed  shouting,  Away  with  him !  Just 
as  Paul  was  about  to  be  led  into  the  barracks,  he  said  to 
the  commander,  May  I  say  something  to  you  ?  The  com- 
mander replied,  Do  you  know  Greek  ?  Then  you  are  not 
the  Egyptian  who  in  former  days  stirred  up  the  four  thou- 
sand Assassins  and  led  them  out  into  the  desert  ?  Paul 
replied,  I  am  a  Jew,  a  native  of  Tarsus  of  Cilicia,  a  citizen 
of  no  insignificant  city.  I  beg  you,  permit  me  to  speak  to 
the  people.  And  as  the  commander  gave  permission,  Paul 
stood  on  the  steps  and  motioned  with  his  hands  to  the 
people;  and  when  there  was  perfect  silence  he  addressed 
them  in  Hebrew,  telling  them  of  his  vision  on  the  way  to 
Damascus  and  how  the  Lord  said  to  him,  Go,  for  I  send  you 
afar  to  the  Gentiles. 

Until  he  had  said  this  the  people  had  listened  to  Paul, 

202 


PAUL'S  SCOURGING 

but  now  they  raised  a  great  outcry  saying,  Away  with  such  scourg- 
a  fellow  from  the  earth,  for  he  is  not  fit  to  live!    They  §gg_ 
shouted  and  threw  their  clothes  into  the  air  and  flung  dust  gaga- 
about  until  the  commander  ordered  Paul  to  be  led  into  the  of  the 
barracks  and  to  be  examined  under  the  lash  in  order  to  ^$2. 
ascertain  the  reason  why  the  people  had  shouted  at  him.  "> 
But  when  they  had  tied  him  up  with  straps,  Paul  said  to 
the  officer  who  was  standing  by,  Are  you  permitted  to 
scourge  a  Roman  citizen,  and  that  without  trial?    When 
the  officer  heard  this  he  went  to  report  the  matter  to  the 
commander,  saying,  What  is  this  you  are  about  to  do  ?    For 
this  man  is  a  Roman  citizen.    Then  the  commander  went  to 
him  and  said,  Tell  me,  are  you  a  Roman  citizen  ?    And  he 
answered,  Yes.    Then  the  commander  replied,  I  paid  a 
large  sum  for  this  citizenship.    But  I  was  born  a  Roman 
citizen,  said  Paul.    Then  the  men  who  were  about  to  ex- 
amine him  immediately  left  him.    The  commander  also 
was  alarmed  when  he  learned  that  Paul  was  a  Roman 
citizen  and  that  he  had  bound  him. 

The  next  day  the  commander,  wishing  to  know  exactly  Paul's 
what  charge  was  brought  against  Paul  by  the  Jews,  unbound  before® 
him  and  ordered  the  high  priests  and  all  the  Sanhedrin  to  |^_ 
assemble.    Then  bringing  Paul  down,  he  made  him  stand  nedrin 
before  them.    Whereupon,  Paul  looking  straight  at  the  %£]*~. 
Sanhedrin,  said,  Brothers,  I  have  lived  before  God  with  a 
perfectly  good  conscience  up  to  this  day.    Then  the  high 
priest  Ananias  ordered  those  who  were  standing  near  Paul 
to  strike  him  on  the  mouth.    Paul  said  to  him,  You  white- 
washed wall,  God  will  strike  you !    Do  you  sit  there  to  judge 
me  according  to  the  law  while  you  yourself  break  the  law 
by  ordering  me  to  be  struck  ?    But  those  who  were  stand- 
ing by  said,  Would  you  rail  at  God's  high  priest?    Paul 
said,  Brothers,  I  did  not  know  that  he  was  a  high  priest 
(for  it  is  written,  *  Thou  shalt  not  speak  evil  of  a  ruler  of 
thy  people  '). 

Then  Paul,  knowing  that  part  of  the  Sanhedrin  con- 
sisted of  Sadducees  and  the  other  part  of  Pharisees,  shouted 
to  them,  Brothers,  I  am  a  Pharisee,  the  son  of  Pharisees. 
For  the  hope  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  I  am  on  trial! 
When  he  said  this,  there  was  a  quarrel  between  the  Phari- 

203 


PAUL'S  LAST  JOURNEY  TO  JERUSALEM 

The       sees  and  the  Sadducees,  and  the  assembly  was  divided. 

be?£Sfn  For  while  the  Sadducees  say  that  there  is  no  resurrection 

the        nor  angel  nor  spirit,  the  Pharisees  acknowledge  all  these 

dScees    things;  hence  there  was  a  great  uproar.    And  some  of 

PhaS6  me  scribes,  who  belonged  to  the  party  of  the  Pharisees, 

sees       arose  and  contended,  We  find  no  harm  in  this  man.    What 

(810)      if  some  spirit  or  angel  has  spoken  to  him?    When  the 

quarrel   became   so   violent   that   the   commander  feared 

that  Paul  would  be  torn  in  pieces  by  them,  he  ordered  the 

troops  to  go  down  and  take  him  from  their  midst  by  force 

and  bring  him  into  the  barracks. 

Paul's        On  the  following  night  the  Lord  stood  by  Paul  and  said, 

^fon    Be  of  good  courage,  for  as  you  have  borne  witness  to  me  at 

Jerusalem  so  you  must  bear  witness  also  at  Rome. 
The  Now  when  daylight  came,  the  Jews  formed  a  conspiracy 

kmhSi  and  solemnly  swore  not  to  eat  or  drink  until  they  had  killed 
(u-u)  Paul.  Those  who  bound  themselves  by  this  oath  were 
more  than  forty  in  all.  Going  to  the  high  priests  and 
elders  they  said,  We  have  bound  ourselves  by  a  solemn 
oath  not  to  taste  anything  until  we  have  killed  Paul.  Now 
you,  together  with  the  Sanhedrin,  must  make  it  appear  to 
the  commander  that  you  wish  him  to  bring  Paul  down  to  you 
because  you  wish  to  investigate  more  minutely  the  charges 
brought  against  him.  We  will  be  ready  to  kill  him  before 
he  comes  near  this  place. 
The  But  Paul's  nephew  heard  of  the  treacherous  ambush  and 

Sosure  gained  admission  to  the  barracks  and  informed  Paul.    Then 
°f0*he    Paul  called  one  of  the  officers  and  said,  Take  this  young  man 
^u?2ia)     to  the  commander  for  he  has  some  information  to  give  him. 
Accordingly  the  officer  took  and  brought  him  to  the  com- 
mander and  said,  Paul  the  prisoner  called  me  and  asked  me 
if  I  would  bring  this  young  man  to  you  for  he  has  something 
to  say  to  you.    Then  the  commander  took  him  aside  by  the 
hand  and  inquired  of  him  in  private,  What  is  the  informa- 
tion you  have  to  give  me  ?    He  said,  The  Jews  have  agreed 
to  ask  you  to  bring  Paul  to-morrow  down  to  the  Sanhedrin 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  examining  his  case  in  detail. 
Now  do  not  be  persuaded  by  them,  for  more  than  forty  of 
them  are  lying  in  wait  for  him. 
Then  the  commander  sent  away  the  young  man,  enjoin- 

204 


PAUL  AT  CAESAREA 

ing  him  to  *  tell  no  one  that  you  informed  me  of  these  things.'  Paul 
He  then  summoned  two  of  the  officers  and  said,  Make  cS£a-° 
ready  two  hundred  infantry,  seventy  horsemen,  and  two  "» 
hundred  spearmen  by  nine  o'clock  to-night  to  march  as 
far  as  Caesarea.    Provide  horses  also  to  mount  Paul  so  as 
to  bring  him  safely  to  Felix  the  governor.    He  also  wrote 
a  letter  to  Felix. 

The  soldiers,  therefore,  according  to  their  instructions,  Arrival 
took  Paul  and  brought  him  by  night  to  Antipatris.     On  the  caesa- 
next  day  the  infantry  returned  to  the  barracks,  leaving  the  rea 
cavalry  to  go  on  with  him.    When  they  reached  Caesarea, 
they  delivered  the  letter  to  the  governor  and  also  brought 
Paul  to  him.    When  he  had  read  the  letter,  Felix  asked 
from  what  province  he  was,  and  learning  that  it  was  Cilicia 
he  said,  I  will  hear  all  about  your  case  whenever  your  ac- 
cusers arrive.    And  he  gave  orders  that  Paul  be  kept  in  the 
pretorium  of  Herod. 

I.     The  Record  of  Paul's  Journey  to  Jerusalem  and  Rome. 

When  Paul  set  out  on  his  final  journey  to  Jerusalem,  the  intermittent 
stream  of  narrative  in  Acts  suddenly  broadens,  giving  us  a  detailed 
picture  of  Paul's  public  activity.  Fully  one-fourth  of  the  book  of 
Acts  is  devoted  to  these  journeys  which  finally  led  him  to  Rome. 
Only  regarding  Paul's  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Caesarea  the  narra- 
tive suddenly  becomes  silent.  Two  reasons  probably  explain  this 
striking  literary  phenomenon.  With  the  exception  of  the  two  years  at 
Caesarea,  Luke  was  evidently  drawing  from  his  own  personal  experi- 
ence and  observation.  Throughout  most  of  this  narrative  he  speaks 
in  the  first  person  plural.  As  has  already  been  noted,  the  evidence  is 
practically  conclusive  that  Luke  himself  is  the  author  of  this  journal 
of  travel  and  that,  even  where  he  does  not  use  the  first  person,  he  is 
in  close  personal  touch  with  the  facts.  The  second  reason  is  because 
of  the  nature  of  the  material  here  presented.  Two  of  Luke's  most 
important  contentions  are:  (1)  that  practically  all  the  opposition  to 
Christianity  came  from  the  Jews,  and  (2)  that  the  early  attitude  of 
the  Roman  officials  toward  Christianity  was  not  only  friendly  but 
protective.  It  is  probably  under  the  influence  of  this  motive  that 
Luke  has  reproduced  and  expanded  the  speeches  of  Paul  and  the 
Roman  officials  and  introduced  even  the  supposed  text  of  the  letter 
sent  by  the  Roman  governor  of  Jerusalem  to  Felix,  the  procurator  of 

205 


PAUL'S  LAST  JOURNEY  TO  JERUSALEM 

Judea.  He  also  aimed  to  say  as  little  as  possible  about  the  heart- 
burns and  bitternesses  of  the  past.  Luke's  concentration  on  these 
definite  aims  alone  explains  his  silence  regarding  the  real  object  of 
Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem  and  the  realization  of  the  apostle's  great 
ambition. 

II.  Paul's  Reasons  for  Revisiting  Jerusalem.  The  narrative 
of  Acts  indicates  clearly  that  Paul  went  up  to  Jerusalem  in  direct  op- 
position to  the  earnest  warnings  of  his  friends.  They  knew  well  the 
bitterness  of  the  opposition  which  he  would  meet  in  that  centre  of 
Judaism.  The  account  of  the  warning  of  Agabus,  who  had  just  come 
from  Judea  and  was  therefore  in  close  touch  with  conditions  there, 
indicates  that  the  old  type  of  Hebrew  prophet  still  survived  in  the 
Christian  church.  For  the  "Thus  saith  Jehovah"  is  substituted  the 
equally  impressive  phrase  "Thus  saith  the  Holy  Spirit."  The  over- 
mastering conviction  that  incites  him  to  speak  is  evidently  akin  in 
every  respect  to  that  which  in  earlier  days  drew  Amos  from  his  flock 
and  impelled  him  to  speak  before  the  assembled  multitudes  at  the 
great  sanctuary  in  Bethel.  The  methods  whereby  Agabus  impressed 
his  message  upon  Paul  also  recall  the  dramatic  object-lessons  which 
Ezekiel  used  to  convince  his  irresolute  countrymen.  But  neither  the 
warnings  of  the  Christian  prophets  nor  Paul's  own  knowledge  of  the 
perils  which  confronted  him  at  Jerusalem  deterred  him.  What  were 
the  reasons  which  thus  impelled  him  onward?  The  first  was  evi- 
dently his  feeling  that  he  must  fulfil  the  parting  injunction  of  the 
pillar  apostles  in  their  last  interview  at  Jerusalem,  when  they  urged 
him  to  remember  the  poor  at  Jerusalem.  He  also  felt  a  deep  obliga- 
tion to  discharge  the  trust  placed  in  his  hands  by  the  Gentile  churches 
and  to  deliver  at  Jerusalem  in  person  the  funds  intrusted  to  his  care. 
More  important  still,  Paul  desired  in  the  presence  of  the  mother  church 
to  vindicate  his  work  among  the  Gentiles.  He  plainly  declares  this 
purpose  in  the  conclusion  of  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Christians:  "Pray 
that  I  may  be  delivered  from  the  unbelievers  in  Judea  and  also  that 
my  mission  to  Jerusalem  may  prove  acceptable  to  the  saints."  Above 
all,  Paul  ardently  hoped  by  this  visit  to  establish  the  unity  of  the 
"Body  of  Christ."  This  achievement  he  hoped  to  make  the  crown  of 
his  life-work.  All  the  influences  of  his  Jewish  inheritance  led  him  to 
crave  the  approval  and  fellowship  of  his  Jewish  Christian  brothers. 
If  he  could  win  these,  all  the  bitterness  of  the  Judaistic  controversies 
would  be  but  easily  forgotten  memories,  and  the  Christian  church 
would  be  in  a  position  to  face  the  Grseco-Roman  world  with  unbroken 

206 


PAUL'S  REASONS  FOR  REVISITING  JERUSALEM 

front.     It  was,  therefore,  as  the  first  great  apostle  of  Christian  unity 
that  Paul  undertook  this  perilous  adventure. 

III.  Paul's  Reception  at  Jerusalem.  The  narrative  of  Acts 
indicates  that  Paul's  reception  by  the  leaders  of  the  Jerusalem  church 
was  on  the  whole  friendly,  but  it  is  ominously  silent  regarding  the  way 
in  which  they  received  the  contributions  of  the  Gentile  churches. 
They  were  still  chiefly  concerned  about  Paul's  attitude  toward  the 
Jewish  law.  It  is  evident  that  they  were  unable  to  rise  above  their 
intense  Jewish  environment.  It  is  probable  that  already  the  storm 
of  Jewish  persecution  was  rising,  which  resulted  a  few  years  later  in 
the  death  of  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  in  the  scattering  of  the 
Jerusalem  church.  Even  the  optimistic  Luke  gives  the  impression 
that  within  the  Christian  brotherhood  Paul  met  with  bitter  disap- 
pointment. While  the  leaders  shared  with  him  the  joy  inspired  by  his 
marvellous  achievements  in  Gentile  lands,  they  were  unable  to  shake 
off  their  immediate  fears.  Their  chief  concern  was  still  about  his  at- 
titude toward  the  Jewish  law.  Was  his  action,  as  reported,  in  avowing 
publicly  his  personal  loyalty  to  the  Jewish  law  inconsistent  with  his 
earlier  teachings  and  practices  ?  It  was  certainly  consistent  with  his 
avowed  principle  "of  becoming  like  the  Jews  to  win  over  the  Jews 
and  as  one  of  themselves  to  those  under  the  law."  Moreover,  his  chief 
contention  had  been  that  the  Jewish  law  was  not  binding  on  any 
Christians  except  as  they  freely  chose  to  keep  it  in  order  not  to  offend 
the  "weak."  Against  the  action  of  the  Jewish  Christians,  who  con- 
tinued for  conscientious  reasons  to  observe  the  laws  of  their  fathers,  he 
was  the  last  to  raise  a  voice  of  protest.  The  impression  that  he  was 
opposed  to  the  Mosaic  law  itself  was  also  wrong.  In  the  circum- 
stances he  probably  felt  amply  justified,  in  order  to  remove  false  im- 
pressions, in  associating  with  four  poor  men  who  had  taken  a  vow  and 
in  defraying  the  expense  of  the  sacrifices  demanded  by  the  Jewish  ritual. 
IV.  The  Jewish  Attack.  Paul's  action  probably  satisfied  the 
Jewish  Christians,  but  in  the  end  it  proved  disastrous.  His  presence 
in  the  temple  arou»©d  the  smouldering  antagonism  of  certain  of  the 
visiting  Jews  from  the  province  of  Asia,  who  had  probably  come  into 
hostile  contact  with  Paul  during  his  long  and  strenuous  ministry  at 
Ephesus.  The  memory  that  Paul  had  earlier  brought  Titus,  a  Greek 
Christian,  to  Jerusalem,  may  still  have  lingered  in  the  popular  mind. 
If  so,  it  tended  to  give  credence  to  the  charge  of  the  Ephesian  Jews 
that  Paul  had  taken  another  Gentile  Christian,  Tropbimus  of  Ephesus 
(who  had  journeyed  to  Jerusalem  with  Paul)  into  the  sacred  temple 

207 


PAUL'S  LAST  JOURNEY  TO  JERUSALEM 

precincts.  According  to  the  Jewish  law,  confirmed  by  the  tablets 
set  up  by  Herod  about  the  enclosure  which  shut  in  the  inner  courts 
of  the  temple,  this  was  a  capital  offense.  The  charge  was  undoubtedly 
false,  but  it  was  sufficient  to  inflame  the  mind  of  the  fanatical  mob. 
The  Romans  were  ordinarily  inclined  to  support  the  Jewish  law,  but 
the  Jews  in  their  fury  evidently  intended  to  take  justice  in  their  own 
hands  and  to  slay  Paul  on  the  charge  of  impiety.  Uprisings  of  this 
character,  even  in  the  temple  courts  at  this  period,  were  evidently 
common,  and  the  Roman  guards,  stationed  at  the  tower  of  Antonia  on 
the  northwestern  side  of  the  temple  area,  were  ever  on  the  alert  to  put 
down  an  uprising.  Their  timely  interference  alone  saved  Paul's  life. 
As  ever  in  face  of  danger,  he  was  cool  and  alert.  It  was  characteristic 
of  Paul  to  face  the  mob  and  to  improve  the  dramatic  opportunity 
thus  offered  to  preach  the  faith  for  which  he  was  ready  to  die.  The 
variations  in  the  account  of  his  conversions  indicate  that  the  details  of 
the  speech  here  attributed  to  him  are  not  the  result  of  the  verbatim 
report,  for  which  the  occasion  offered  no  opportunity,  but  of  Luke's 
tendency  to  present  vividly  and  concretely  the  spirit  and  thought  of 
the  characters  who  figure  in  his  narrative.  Even  in  the  hands  of  the 
Roman  soldiers,  Paul  again  proved  himself  master  of  the  situation. 
Emperors  like  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  keenly  interested  in  the  welfare 
of  the  provinces,  had  taught  the  Roman  provincial  officials  to  beware 
lest  they  misuse  their  power.  Paul's  assertions  that  he  was  a  Roman 
citizen  not  only  saved  him  from  scourging  but  also  insured  him  a  fair 
hearing.  Before  the  Roman  official  could  take  action,  Paul,  because  of 
the  nature  of  the  charge  brought  against  him,  must  be  tried  and  con- 
demned by  the  supreme  Jewish  court,  the  Sanhedrim  According  to 
Luke's  account,  Paul,  knowing  well  the  constitution  of  this  unique 
assembly,  precipitated  a  dispute  among  its  members  which  again 
brought  in  the  Roman  troops.  The  futility  of  the  charge  brought 
against  Paul  was  evidently  recognized  by  his  bitterest  foes.  Baffled 
in  their  attempt  to  put  an  end  to  him  at  the  hands  of  the  mob,  they 
formed  a  conspiracy  to  kill  him  secretly.  Fortunately  for  Paul,  he  had 
Jewish  kinsmen  at  Jerusalem,  who  revealed  this  plot  to  him.  His  ability 
and  Roman  citizenship  had  evidently  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
Roman  commander,  so  that  almost  as  a  royal  prisoner  Paul  was  sent 
to  Felix,  the  governor  of  Judea,  whose  official  residence  was  at  Caesarea. 
V.  The  Results  of  Paul's  Visit  to  Jerusalem.  Unfortunately, 
the  details  in  Luke's  account  of  Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem  have  ob- 
scured the  main  issue.    Was  his  mission  successful?    Did  the  Jeru- 

208 


THE  RESULTS  OF  PAUL'S  VISIT 

salem  church  accept  the  contributions  of  the  Gentile  Christians  and 
in  so  doing  cement  the  bond  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Chris- 
tian church?  Whatever  be  the  answer,  the  significant  fact  is  estab- 
lished that  Paul,  who  most  nobly  interpreted  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  was 
such  an  ardent  advocate  of  Christian  unity  that  he  was  quite  ready, 
if  necessary,  to  die  for  this  cause.  The  facts  themselves  are  fugitive. 
Luke's  narrative  leaves  us  to  infer  that  Paul's  mission  to  Jerusalem 
was  successful.  Possibly  there  were  details  which  Luke  deemed 
best  to  omit.  Early  Christian  tradition  asserts  that  Luke  himself 
was  the  one  whom  Paul  describes  in  II  Corinthians  818"21  as  "the 
brother  who  is  praised  by  all  the  churches  because  of  his  services  for 
the  Gospel,  and  not  only  so,  but  who  has  been  appointed  by  the  churches 
to  travel  with  us  in  charge  of  this  contribution  which  we  are  admin- 
istering for  the  glory  of  the  Lord.  His  appointment  was  also  in  ac- 
cord with  our  desire,  for  we  want  to  take  precaution  lest  any  one  should 
find  fault  with  us  regarding  the  administration  of  this  charity,  for  we 
aim  to  do  those  things  which  are  honorable,  not  only  in  the  sight  of 
God,  but  also  in  the  sight  of  men."  That  Luke  accompanied  Paul  to 
Jerusalem  is  clear.  He  appears  also  to  have  returned  to  Syria  after 
the  apostle's  long  imprisonment,  for  he  was  present  to  accompany  him 
on  his  journey  to  Rome.  It  is  strange  that  Luke  says  nothing  in  Acts 
concerning  the  realization  of  Paul's  ardent  hope  that  "his  mission  to 
Jerusalem  might  prove  acceptable  to  the  saints."  Luke's  account 
leaves  us  to  infer  that  it  was  acceptable  and  that  Paul's  public  proof 
of  his  personal  regard  for  the  Jewish  law  was  one  of  the  conditions 
under  which  they  accepted  it.  If  so,  further  light  is  thrown  upon  his 
reasons  for  submitting  to  what  must  to  many  of  his  friends  have  been 
regarded  as  a  compromise.  Possibly  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Jeru- 
salem apostles  part  of  the  contributions  from  the  Gentile  churches 
was  used  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  four  Jewish  Christians,  who 
were  thus  enabled  to  fulfil  their  vows.  Certainly  Paul's  later  letters, 
and  especially  Philippians  and  Ephesians,  resound  with  thanksgiving 
because  the  unity  of  the  church  of  Christ  had  been  established  and 
the  barriers,  which  had  kept  Gentile  and  Jew  apart,  had  been  removed. 
To  the  Gentiles  of  Asia  Minor  he  writes  (Eph.  219"21) :  "You  are  no  longer 
strangers  and  foreigners,  you  share  the  membership  of  the  saints,  you 
belong  to  God's  own  household,  you  are  a  building  which  rests  on  the 
apostles  and  prophets  as  its  foundation,  with  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
corner-stone.  In  him  the  whole  structure  is  welded  together  and  rises 
into  a  sacred  temple  in  the  Lord." 

209 


§  CLXm.    THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

Pauls        Five  days  after  Paul  arrived  at  Caesarea  the  high  priest, 
JJJach-    Ananias,  came  down  with  some  elders  and  an  orator  called 
ment     Tertullus.    They  laid  the   case   against  Paul  before   the 
24i°»)S     governor.    After  Paul  had  been  summoned,  Tertullus  be- 
gan to  accuse  him,  saying,  Inasmuch  as  it  is  owing  to  you, 
most  excellent  Felix,  that  we  enjoy  perfect  peace  and  as 
it  is  through  your  wise  provision  that  evils  are  corrected  in 
this  nation  in  every  instance  and  in  every  place,  we  accept 
these  with  profound  gratitude.    But  in  order  that  I  may 
not  detain  you  too  long,  I  beg  you  in  your  forbearance  to 
hear  a  brief  statement  from  us.    For  we  have  found  this 
man  Paul  a  pest  and  a  disturber  of  the  peace  among  all  the 
Jews  throughout  the  world  and  a  ringleader  of  the  Nazarene 
sect.    He  even  tried  to  desecrate  the  temple,  but  we  ar- 
rested him.    By  examining  him  yourself  you  will  be  able 
to  find  out  about  all  these  charges  which  we  allege  against 
him.    The  Jews  also  joined  in  the  attack,  declaring  that 
these  things  were  so. 
Paul's        Then  at  a  signal  from  the  governor,  Paul  made  his  reply: 
g££:      Knowing  that  you  have  administered  justice  in  this  nation 
tionof   for  many  years,  I  willingly  make  my  defense,  because,  as 
SSoj     you  are  able  to  ascertain,  it  is  not  more  than  twelve  days 
(1021)      since  I  went  up  to  worship  at  Jerusalem.    They  neither 
found  me  arguing  with  any  one  in  the  temple  nor  stirring 
up  a  crowd  either  in  the  synagogues  or  in  the  city.    They 
cannot  prove  the  charges  which  they  are  now  bringing 
against  me.    But  this  I  confess  to  you  that  in  the  way, 
which  they  call  a  sect,  I  worship  the  God  of  our  fathers, 
and  I  believe  all  that  is  written  in  the  law  and  the  prophets 
and  I  hold  the  same  hope  in  God  as  they  themselves  enter- 
tain, that  there  is  to  be  a  resurrection  of  the  just  and  the 
unjust.    Therefore,  I  too  am  under  obligation  at  all  times 
to  have  a  clear  conscience  before  God  and  man.    After 
several  years  I  came  up  to  bring  alms  and  sacrifices  for  my 
nation.    They  found  me  while  doing  this  in  the  temple, 
ceremonially  pure  and  mixed  up  in  no  mob  nor  riot;  but 
there  were  certain  Jews  from  Asia  who  ought  to  be  here 

210 


PAUL'S  PROTESTATION  OF  INNOCENCE 


before  you  to  present  whatever  charge  they  may  have 
against  me.  Or  let  those  men  there  tell  what  fault  they 
found  in  me  when  I  stood  before  the  Sanhedrin,  unless  it 
be  that  single  sentence  which  I  uttered  when  I  shouted  as 
I  stood  among  them,  *  It  is  for  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
that  I  am  being  tried  to-day  before  you.' 

But  Felix,  being  accurately  informed  regarding  the  way, 
adjourned  their  case,  saying  to  them,  When  Lysias  the  com- 
mander comes  down,  I  will  decide  your  case.  He  also  gave 
orders  to  the  officer  to  hold  him  in  custody  and  to  allow  him 
some  liberty  and  not  to  prevent  his  own  friends  from  min- 
istering to  him. 

Some  days  later,  Felix  came  with  Drusilla  his  wife,  who 
was  a  Jewess,  and  sent  for  Paul  and  heard  him  speak  re- 
garding faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  But  when  he  argued  about 
justice,  self-control,  and  future  judgment,  Felix  became 
alarmed  and  replied,  You  may  go  for  the  present  and  when 
I  find  a  convenient  time  I  will  send  for  you,  though  he  hoped 
at  the  same  time  that  Paul  would  give  him  money.  For 
this  reason  he  sent  for  him  frequently  and  conversed  with 
him.  But  when  two  full  years  had  passed,  Felix  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Porcius  Festus.  And  as  Felix  wished  to  in- 
gratiate himself  with  the  Jews,  he  left  Paul  in  custody. 

Now  three  days  after  Festus  entered  the  province  he 
went  up  from  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem.  Then  the  high 
priests  and  the  leading  Jews  brought  a  charge  against  Paul 
and  begged  Festus  as  a  favor  to  send  and  have  him  brought 
to  Jerusalem,  for  they  were  planning  an  ambush  to  kill  him 
on  the  way.  But  Festus  replied  that  Paul  was  in  custody 
in  Caesarea  and  that  he  himself  was  about  to  go  there  in  a 
short  time.  Therefore,  he  said,  let  those  of  you  who  are 
able  go  down  with  me  and  charge  the  man  with  whatever 
crime  he  has  committed.  After  staying  eight  or  ten  days 
in  Jerusalem  he  went  down  to  Caesarea. 

The  next  day  Festus  took  his  seat  on  the  tribunal  and 
ordered  Paul  to  be  brought  in.  When  he  arrived,  the  Jews 
who  had  come  down  from  Jerusalem  stood  around  him  and 
brought  many  and  grave  charges  against  him  which  they 
were  unable  to  prove.  Paul  said  in  reply,  I  have  committed 
no  offense  against  the  Jewish  law  or  the  temple  or  Caesar. 

211 


Felix's 
decision 
regard- 
ing 
Paul 

(22,  23) 


Felix's 

delay 

of 

Paul's 

case 

(24-27) 


The 

new 
plot 
of  the 
Jews 
(25i-«») 


Paul's 
defense 

(6b-8) 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

Paul's        But  Festus,  wishing  to  win  favor  with  the  Jews,  asked 
to  the1    Paul,  Are  you  willing  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  be  tried 
POT~or     there   before   me   regarding    these    charges?    Paul   said, 
(9 -12)      I  am  standing  before  Caesar's  tribunal,  where  I  ought  to 
be  tried.    I  have  done  no  wrong  to  the  Jews,  as  you  also 
know  perfectly  well.    If,  however,  I  have  done  wrong  and 
have  done  anything  worthy  of  death  I  do  not  object  to  dy- 
ing.   But  if  these  men  have  brought  no  real  charges  against 
me,  then  no  one  has  a  right  to  favor  them  by  giving  me  up 
to  them.    I  appeal  to  Caesar!    Then  after  conferring  with 
the  council,  Festus  answered,  You  have  appealed  to  Caesar, 
to  Caesar  you  shall  go. 
Paul  After  some  days  had  passed,  King  Agrippa  and  Bernice 

Agripe-    came  down  to  Caesarea  to  pay  their  respects  to  Festus. 
iJM>     And  since  they  were  spending  many  days  there,  Festus 
M)         laid  Paul's  case  before  the  king.     So  on  the  next  day 
Agrippa  and  Bernice  came  with  much  pomp  and  entered 
the    audience    hall,    accompanied    by   the    military   com- 
manders and  by  the  chief  men  of  the  city.    Then  at  the 
command  of  Festus  Paul  was  brought  in. 
Pauls        Thereupon,  Agrippa  said  to  Paul,  You  have  permission  to 
before6  speak  in  your  own  behalf.    At  this,  Paul,  stretching  out 
Agrip-    his  hand,  began  his  defense:  I  consider  myself  fortunate, 
(26i-«.     King  Agrippa,  in  being  able  this  day  to  defend  myself  before 
!' 23)      you  against  all  the  accusations  with  which  I  am  charged  by 
the  Jews,  for  you  are  exceedingly  well  informed  regarding 
all  the  Jewish  customs  and  questions.    Therefore,  I  beg  of 
you  hear  me  patiently.    All  the  Jews  know  the  kind  of  life 
I  lived  from  my  youth  upwards  among  my  nation  and  in 
Jerusalem.  .  .  .    Now  to  this  day  I  have  had  the  help  of 
God  and  have  stood  firm,  testifying  to  small  and  great, 
never  saying  a  single  word  beyond  what  the  prophets  and 
Moses  said  would  take  place,  namely,  that  the  Christ  was 
to  suffer  and  be  the  first  to  rise  from  the  dead  and  proclaim 
a  message  of  light  to  the  Jewish  people  and  to  the  Gentiles. 
The  When  Paul  thus  made  his  defense,  Festus  said  in  a  loud 

o?plies  voice,  Paul,  you  are  stark  mad  !  Your  great  learning  is 
andtus  driving  you  insane  !  But  Paul  said,  I  am  not  mad,  most 
Agrip-  noble  Festus,  but  I  am  speaking  words  of  truth  and  sober- 
(m-m)     ness.    For  the  king  to  whom  I  can  speak  freely,  knows 

212 


PAUL'S  REPLY  TO  KING  AGRIPPA 

about  these  things.  Indeed,  I  cannot  but  believe  that  no 
detail  has  escaped  his  notice,  for  this  thing  was  not  done  in 
a  corner.  King  Agrippa,  do  you  not  believe  the  prophets? 
I  know  that  you  do.  But  Agrippa  said  to  Paul,  In  a  short 
time  you  will  believe  that  you  have  made  a  Christian  of  me ! 
Paul  replied,  Long  or  short,  I  pray  to  God  that  not  only 
you  but  also  all  my  hearers  this  day  may  be  such  as  I  am, 
excepting  these  chains. 

Then  the  king  arose  with  the  governor  and  Bernice  and  Decia- 
those  who  had  been  sitting  with  them  and  withdrew  to  dis-  Jftlon 
cuss  the  matter  with  one  another.    And  they  said,  This  ffjgrs 
man  has  done  nothing  deserving  of  death  or  imprison-  cence 
ment.    Agrippa  also  said  to  Festus,  This  man  might  have  (,M8) 
been  released  if  he  had  not  appealed  to  Caesar. 

Now  when  it  was  decided  that  we  were  to  sail  for  Italy,  inci- 
they  handed  over  Paul  and  certain  other  prisoners  to  an  Jjfthe 
officer  of  the  imperial  regiment  named  Julius.  Then  Tg^fj6 
going  on  board  of  a  ship  of  Adramyttium,  which  was  bound 
to  the  seaports  of  the  province  of  Asia,  we  set  sail,  having 
with  us  Aristarchus,  a  Macedonian  from  Thessalonica. 
On  the  next  day  we  put  in  at  Sidon,  where  Julius  treated 
Paul  very  kindly  and  allowed  him  to  visit  his  friends  and  to 
avail  himself  of  their  generous  care.  Putting  to  sea  from 
there,  we  sailed  under  the  lee  of  Cyprus,  because  the 
wind  was  against  us.  Then,  after  sailing  the  whole  length 
of  the  sea  which  lies  off  Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  we  came  to 
Myra  in  Lycia.  There  the  officer  found  an  Alexandrian 
ship  bound  for  Italy  and  put  us  on  board  of  her.  For  a 
number  of  days  we  made  slow  progress  and  came  with 
great  difficulty  off  Cnidus.  Then,  as  the  wind  did  not  al- 
low us  to  go  on,  we  sailed  under  the  lee  of  Crete,  opposite 
Cape  Salome,  and  coasting  along  with  difficulty  we  reached 
a  place  called  Fair  Havens,  near  the  city  of  Lasea. 

Inasmuch   as   our  voyage  had  taken  considerable  time  Paul's 
and  the  sailing  had  become  dangerous,  and  the  autumn  g^jjf 
fast  was  already  over,  Paul  warned  them  saying,  Men,  I  sailors 
perceive  that  this  voyage  will  be  attended  with  danger  and 
much  loss  not  only  to  the  cargo  and  the  ship  but  to  our  own 
lives.    The  officer,  however,  let  himself  be  persuaded  by 
the  captain  and  the  owner  of  the  ship  rather  than  by  the 

213 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

things  which  Paul  said.    And  as  the  harbor  was  incon- 
venient for  wintering  in,  the  majority  advised  putting  to 
sea  to  try  to  reach  Phoenix,  a  Cretan  harbor  facing  southwest 
and  northwest,  in  order  to  winter  there. 
The  When  a  light  southerly  breeze  sprung  up,  they  thought 

sfi™     that  they  had  secured  their  object.    After  weighing  an- 
chor they  ran  close  along  the  coast  of  Crete ;  but  it  was  not 
long  before  a  tempestuous  wind  called  Euroklydon  rushed 
down.    The  ship  was  caught  and  was  not  able  to  face  the 
wind;  so  we  gave  up  and  let  it  drive.    Then  we  ran  along 
the  lee  of  a  little  island  called  Cauda,  where  we  managed 
with  great  difficulty  to  secure  the  ship's  boat.    After  hoist- 
ing it  on  board,  they  used  ropes  to  undergird  the  ship. 
Fearing  lest  they  should  be  stranded  on  the  Syrtis  quick- 
sands, they  lowered  the  sail  and  lay  to.    But  as  we  were 
being  terribly  battered  by  the  storm,  they  began  to  lighten 
the  ship  the  next  day,  and  on  the  third  day  they  threw  the 
ship's  tackle  overboard  with  their  own  hands.    Then  for 
many  days,  neither  sun  nor  stars  were  seen  and  a  heavy 
gale  still  raged  so  that  at  last  all  hope  of  our  being  saved 
was  taken  away. 
Pauls        Now  when  they  had  gone  a  long  time  without  food,  Paul 
of°en^     stood  forth  in  their  midst  and  said,  Men,  you  should  have 
cour-     listened  to  me  and  not  have  set  sail  from  Crete  and  thus 
St     spared  yourself  this  hardship  and  loss.    But  now  I  bid  you 
(,M,)      have  courage,  for  there  will  be  no  loss  of  life,  only  of  the 
ship,  for  last  night  an  angel  of  the  God  to  whom  I  belong 
and  whom  I  serve,  stood  beside  me  and  said,  *  Fear  not, 
Paul,  for  you  must  stand  before  Caesar.    Behold  also,  God 
hath  granted  you  the  lives  of  all  those  who  are  sailing  with 
you.'    Therefore,  have  courage,  men  !    For  I  believe  God 
and  that  it  will  be  just  as  I  have  been  told.    But  we  are  to 
be  stranded  on  a  certain  island. 
Ap-  It  was  now  the  fourteenth  night  and  we  were  drifting 

toiSS  through  the  Sea  of  Adria,  when  the  sailors  in  the  middle  of 
<"-«)  the  night  suspected  that  land  was  near.  And  when  they 
cast  the  lead,  they  found  twenty  fathoms  of  water  and  a 
little  further,  when  they  cast  the  lead,  they  found  fifteen. 
Then,  fearing  lest  we  should  be  stranded  on  the  rocks, 
they  threw  out  four  anchors  from  the  stern  and  longed  for 

214 


PAUL'S  SHIPWRECK 

the  day.  The  sailors  were  trying  to  escape  from  the  ship 
and  had  even  lowered  the  boat  in  the  sea,  pretending  that 
they  were  going  to  lay  out  anchors  from  the  bow,  when 
Paul  said  to  the  officers  and  the  soldiers,  Unless  these  men 
stay  in  the  ship  you  cannot  be  saved.  Then  the  soldiers 
cut  away  the  ropes  of  the  boat  and  let  her  fall  off. 

Just  before  daybreak,  Paul  begged  them  all  to  take  some  Pauls 
food,  saying,  To-day  is  the  fourteenth  day  that  you  have  ^^f61 
been  anxiously  watching  and  fasting  without  taking  food. 
Therefore  I  beg  of  you  take  some  food,  for  this  will  keep 
you  alive;  indeed,  not  one  hair  of  your  heads  will  perish. 
After  he  had  said  these  words,  he  took  a  loaf  and,  after 
giving  thanks  to  God,  he  broke  and  began  to  eat  it  in  the 
presence  of  them  all.  Then  they  were  all  encouraged  and 
they  themselves  took  food.  There  were  about  seventy- 
six  souls  of  us  on  board.  And  when  they  had  eaten  enough, 
they  lightened  the  ship  by  throwing  the  wheat  into  the  sea. 

When  it  was  day,  they  could  not  recognize  what  land  it  The 
was ;  but  they  noticed  a  certain  inlet  with  a  sandy  beach  on  ^Jeck 
which  they  planned  if  possible  to  run  the  ship  ashore.  So  (3'"") 
cutting  away  the  anchors,  they  left  them  in  the  sea.  At 
the  same  time  unloosing  the  ropes  which  tied  the  rudders 
and  hoisting  the  foresail  to  the  wind,  they  made  for  the 
beach.  Coming  to  a  place  where  two  seas  met,  they 
stranded  the  ship.  The  prow,  sticking  fast,  remained  im- 
movable, but  the  stern  began  to  go  to  pieces  on  account 
of  the  beating  of  the  waves.  Then  the  soldiers  counselled 
that  they  should  kill  the  prisoners  lest  some  one  of  them 
might  swim  ashore  and  escape.  But  the  officer,  desiring 
to  save  Paul,  prevented  them  from  carrying  out  their  plan 
and  commanded  that  those  who  were  able  to  swim  should 
jump  overboard  first  and  get  to  land  and  that  the  rest  should 
follow,  some  on  planks  and  the  others  on  pieces  of  wreck- 
age.   Thus,  they  all  got  safely  to  land. 

Now,  after  we  had  escaped,  we  found  that  the  island  was  paurs 
called  Malta.    The  rude  natives  showed  us  more  than  or-  eS??ri" 
dinary  kindness,  for  they  lighted  a  fire  and  welcomed  us  jjjth 
all  because  of  the  pouring  rain  and  the  cold.    Now,  when  viper 
Paul  had  gathered  a  bundle  of  sticks  and  put  them  on  the   (281"*) 
fire,  a  viper  driven  forth  by  the  heat  fastened  itself  on  his 

215 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

hand.    When  the  natives  saw  the  creature  hanging  from 

his  hand,  they  said  to  one  another,  Undoubtedly  this  man 

is  a  murderer !    Though  he  has  escaped  from  the  sea, 

justice  will  not  let  him  live.    He,  however,  shook  off  the 

creature  into  the  fire  and  suffered  no  harm.    But  the  natives 

waited  for  him  to  swell  up  or  suddenly  fall  down  dead ;  but 

after  waiting  a  long  time  and  seeing  that  no  harm  came  to 

him,  they  changed  their  minds  and  said  that  he  was  a  god. 

Paul's        In  the  same  part  of  the  island  there  was  an  estate  belong- 

heaiing  tog  to  the  governor,  whose  name  was  Publius.    He  wel- 

(710)      corned  us  and  entertained  us  most  hospitably  for  three  days. 

Now  it  happened  that  the  father  of  Publius  was  lying  ill  of 

fever  and  dysentery;  so  Paul  went  in  to  see  him  and  after 

he  had  prayed,  laid  his  hands  on  him  and  cured  him.    When 

this  had  happened,  the  other  sick  people  in  the  island  also 

came  and  were  cured.    Moreover,  they  loaded  us  with 

many  honors  and  when  we  set  sail  they  provided  us  with 

all  those  things  which  we  needed. 

voyage       After  three  months  we  set  sail  in  an  Alexandrian  ship 

puteoii  called  The  Twin  Brothers,  which  had  wintered  in  the  is- 

("•")      land.    And  touching  at  Syracuse,  we  remained  there  three 

days.    Then  tacking  around  we  reached  Rhegium.    A  day 

later  a  south  wind  sprang  up  and  we  arrived  the  second  day 

at  Puteoii  where  we  found  Christian  brothers  and  were 

urged  to  spend  a  week  with  them. 

Paul  at       Thus,  we  reached  Rome.     From  thence,  brothers  who 

(JBOI£e    had  heard  about  us,  came  out  to  meet  us  as  far  as  the 

■■• 81)      Forum  of  Appius  and  the  Three  Taverns.    And  when  Paul 

saw  them,  he  thanked  God  and  took  courage.    When  we 

finally  reached  Rome,  Paul  was  allowed  to  live  by  himself 

with  a  soldier  to  guard  him.    For  two  entire  years  he  lived 

in  his  own  hired  house,  receiving  all  who  came  to  him, 

preaching  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  teaching  about  the  Lord 

Jesus  Christ,  quite  openly  and  without  hindrance. 

I.  Paul's  Imprisonment  under  Felix.  Paul's  transfer  from 
Jerusalem  to  Csesarea  delivered  him  from  assassination  at  the  hands 
of  the  Jews  but  brought  him  under  the  power  of  Felix,  one  of  the  most 
unprincipled  of  the  Roman  procurators  who  ruled  during  this  period 
over  the  troubled  province  of  Judea.     Like  his  brother  Pallas,  Felix 

216 


PAUL'S  IMPRISONMENT  UNDER  FELIX 

was  probably  once  a  slave  of  Antonia,  the  mother  of  the  emperor 
Claudius.  The  conservative  Roman  historian  Tacitus  thus  tersely 
describes  him:  "He  exercised  the  prerogative  of  a  king  in  the  spirit 
of  a  slave,  with  superlative  cruelty  and  licentiousness"  (59).  His 
rule,  as  procurator,  was  in  keeping  with  his  character.  He  so  exas- 
perated his  Jewish  subjects  that  the  Zealots  and  the  Sicarii,  the  Nihil- 
ists of  that  period,  fomented  a  series  of  rebellions  which  were  merci- 
lessly repressed  by  Felix.  Popular  messiahs,  some  of  them  secretly 
in  league  with  Felix,  also  kindled  false  hopes  among  the  common 
people  and  gave  him  further  opportunity  for  pillage  and  confiscation. 
The  statement,  therefore,  that  Felix  kept  Paul  in  prison  for  two  years, 
hoping  to  extract  from  him  a  bribe,  is  in  perfect  keeping  with  the 
character  of  this  former  slave,  who  by  a  turn  of  the  wheel  of  fortune 
had  been  received  into  the  imperial  circle  and  had  married,  first  a 
daughter  of  Mark  Anthony  and  Cleopatra,  and  later  Drusilla,  the 
daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 

The  account  of  Paul's  trial  before  Felix  is  probably  based  on  Luke's 
memory  of  the  event.  The  flattering  words  addressed  to  Felix  by  the 
orator,  Tertullus,  were  well  calculated  to  win  a  favorable  hearing,  but 
they  were  a  parody  upon  the  facts.  In  declaring  that  Paul  was  a 
disturber  of  the  peace,  Tertullus  appealed  to  Felix  on  a  point  in  re- 
gard to  which  he  was  exceedingly  sensitive.  Paul's  reply  is  a  notable 
example  of  direct,  powerful  oratory  and  probably  represents  the  main 
points  in  the  great  apostle's  address.  His  Roman  citizenship  probably 
alone  saved  him  from  an  adverse  decision.  Felix  had  heard  from  Paul's 
own  lips  that  his  mission  to  Jerusalem  was  to  bear  funds  from  the  Gen- 
tile churches.  This  fact  was  evidently  the  basis  of  his  hope  of  securing 
a  rich  bribe.  His  mercenary  purpose  also  explains  the  large  degree  of 
freedom  which  he  granted  to  Paul.  Instead  of  being  incarcerated  in  a 
vile  prison,  the  apostle  was  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  Roman  mili- 
tary officer  and  allowed  considerable  liberty.  The  narrative  of  Acts 
is  largely  silent  regarding  the  details  of  these  two  years.  For  Paul, 
however,  they  were  years  of  intense  intellectual  and  literary  activity. 
His  later  letters  suggest  that  he  continued  his  correspondence  with 
the  Western  churches  and  directed  his  lieutenants.  Luke's  silence  re- 
garding this  period  indicates  that  he  returned  to  the  Greek  churches  and 
possibly  brought  back  at  the  end  of  the  two  years  further  contribu- 
tions for  Paul's  support.  Csesarea  was  already  one  of  the  great  in- 
tellectual centres  of  Syria,  and  Paul  evidently  improved  the  oppor- 
tunities which  it  offered  for  further  study.     There  is  evidence  in  his 

217 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

later  writing  that  during  this  period  he  read  certain  apocalyptic  writ- 
ings such  as  the  Assumption  of  Moses  and  an  otherwise  unknown 
writing  which  Epiphanius  designates  as  the  Apocalypse  of  Elias. 
Also  in  the  light  of  Paul's  later  letters  it  is  evident  that  his  conceptions 
of  Jesus  and  of  the  significance  of  his  work  still  further  developed  dur- 
ing these  years  so  rich  in  their  opportunities  for  meditation. 

II.  The  Date  of  the  Procuratorships  of  Felix  and  Festus. 
The  retirement  of  Felix  and  the  succession  of  Festus  to  the  procurator- 
ship  is  one  of  the  landmarks  in  New  Testament  chronology.  Josephus 
states  that  "when  Portius  Festus  was  sent  to  succeed  Felix,  the  leading 
Jewish  inhabitants  of  Csesarea  went  up  to  Rome  to  accuse  Felix. 
He  would  certainly  have  been  brought  to  punishment  for  his  mis- 
deeds toward  the  Jews  had  not  Nero  yielded  to  the  importunate  solici- 
tations of  Felix's  brother,  Pallas,  whom  he  at  that  time  held  in  the 
greatest  honor."  Tacitus  in  his  Annals  (1323)  states  that  Pallas  fell 
from  Nero's  favor  in  the  year  55  a.d.  This  definite  statement  would 
fix  very  closely  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  procuratorship  of 
Festus,  did  not  Tacitus  also  add  in  the  same  context  that  Pallas  was 
later  tried  and  acquitted  by  an  unprincipled  judge  by  the  name  of 
Paetus,  although,  "the  approved  innocence  of  Pallas  did  not  please 
men  so  much  as  his  arrogance  offended  them."  It  is  possible  that 
this  reference  means  that  Pallas  was  later  restored  to  Nero's  favor. 
His  restoration,  however,  is  only  a  possibility.  It  is,  on  the  whole, 
more  probable  that  Felix  was  retired  and  Festus  entered  upon  his 
proconsulship  as  early  as  55  or  56  a.d. 

III.  Paul's  Reasons  for  Appealing  to  Caesar.  Festus  appears, 
on  the  whole,  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  of  the  Roman  procurators. 
He  was  unfamiliar,  however,  with  Jewish  institutions.  The  accession 
of  a  new  procurator  encouraged  Paul's  Jewish  foes  to  believe  that 
they  might  secure  a  verdict  against  him,  for  Festus  was  naturally  eager 
to  win  the  favor  of  the  leaders  of  the  nation.  The  narrative  of  Acts 
suggests  that  Festus  suspected  their  demand  that  Paul  be  transferred 
for  trial  to  Jerusalem.  At  the  same  time,  as  a  Roman  ruler  intent 
upon  restoring  peace  to  the  province  which  had  been  torn  by  dis- 
sensions and  riots  as  a  result  of  the  unprincipled  rule  of  Felix,  Festus 
naturally  looked  with  suspicion  upon  the  prisoner  Paul.  He  evidently 
regarded  him  as  a  religious  fanatic  and  therefore  one  to  be  carefully 
watched.  Festus's  desire  to  please  the  Jews  evidently  so  overruled 
his  Roman  sense  of  justice  that  he  was  inclined  to  yield  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  high  priest  and  transfer  Paul's  trial  to  Jerusalem.     This 

218 


PAUL'S  APPEAL  TO  CESAR 

decision  left  Paul  in  a  most  critical  position.  To  go  to  Jerusalem  was 
to  face  the  danger  of  secret  assassination  and  the  probability  of  ulti- 
mate condemnation,  for  a  man  like  Paul,  whose  activity  had  so  often 
aroused  the  mob,  was  regarded  by  the  Roman  officials  as  a  criminal, 
even  though  he  be  innocent  of  any  evil  intent.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  we  know  from  Paul's  letter  to  the  Romans,  his  chief  passion  at  this 
time  was  to  visit  the  imperial  city.  Hence  his  appeal  to  Caesar.  As 
a  Roman  citizen  he  possessed  the  right  of  appeal  and  Festus  had  no 
valid  grounds  for  refusing  it. 

Paul's  later  examination  before  King  Agrippa  II,  the  son  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I,  was  an  unimportant  episode,  except  that  it  reveals  still 
further  the  heroic  spirit  of  the  great  apostle  and  his  zeal  to  improve 
every  possible  opportunity  to  proclaim  the  religion  of  his  Master. 
It  was  evidently  introduced  by  Luke  as  a  further  illustration  of  the 
fact  that  the  Roman  officials  found  nothing  in  the  work  of  Paul  worthy 
of  condemnation. 

IV.  The  Story  of  His  Shipwreck.  The  account  of  Paul's  voy- 
age and  shipwreck  is  one  of  the  classical  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  gives  us  the  most  vivid  picture  in  ancient  literature  of  the 
life  of  the  courageous  mariners  who  defied  in  their  little  craft  the 
perils  of  the  sea.  Most  travellers  bound  from  Palestine  to  Rome  by 
the  sea  route  embarked  at  Csesarea,  Accho,  or  Tyre.  The  small  ships 
which  plied  from  these  ports  sailed  close  to  the  shores  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor.  There  their  passengers  often  transshipped,  as  did  Paul 
at  Myra  in  southern  Lycia,  in  one  of  the  larger  Alexandrian  grain 
ships,  which  sailed  from  the  great  Egyptian  seaport  directly  to  Rome. 
Thence  the  ordinary  course  ran  past  Rhodes,  along  the  southern  shore 
of  Crete,  where  there  were  favorable  harbors  and  thence  north- 
westerly past  the  southern  shores  of  Greece  until  they  felt  in  their 
sails  the  northern  winds  which  came  down  through  the  Adriatic  and 
which  bore  them  quickly  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Sicily.  There  they 
turned  abruptly  northward  through  the  Straits  of  Messina  and  sailed 
directly  to  Puteoli  or  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  The  open  season  for 
navigation  was  ended  by  the  10th  of  November,  although,  according 
to  the  Latin  writer  Vegitius,  the  favorable  season  was  limited  to  four 
short  months  between  May  26  and  September  14. 

Paul  was  placed  as  a  prisoner  under  the  charge  of  the  centurion 
Julius,  who  was  apparently  one  of  the  many  officers  under  the  immedi- 
ate direction  of  the  emperor.  With  him  went  Aristarchus,  whom 
Paul  in  Colossians  410  speaks  of  as  his  "fellow  prisoner."    According 

219 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

to  the  Western  text,  the  journey  from  Sidon  to  Myra  took  fifteen  days. 
The  accepted  text  states  that  they  met  adverse  winds  which  retarded 
their  progress  and  compelled  them  to  sail  south  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus, 
rather  than  skirt  the  shores  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  From  the  first 
Paul  seemed  to  have  won  the  respect  and  later  the  genuine  affection 
of  the  Roman  official  in  whose  charge  he  had  been  placed.  With  his 
usual  enthusiasm  and  energy  the  apostle  entered  heartily  into  the 
discussion  as  to  whether  or  not  they  should  venture  to  continue  their 
belated  voyage  along  the  southern  shores  of  Crete.  Paul's  experience 
and  good  judgment  led  him  to  oppose  this  plan,  but  the  counsel  of 
the  captain  and  the  owner  of  the  ship  overruled  his  advice.  The 
reference  to  the  Feast  of  the  Atonement  indicates  that  they  were 
venturing  beyond  the  open  season  for  sailing,  and  the  event  signally 
confirmed  the  wisdom  of  Paul's  counsel.  The  vivid  description  of 
the  storm  and  shipwreck  needs  no  interpretation.  Above  it  all  Paul 
rises  sane  and  serene,  again  the  master  of  the  situation.  In  the  hour 
of  crisis,  as  so  often  in  his  experience,  his  dauntless  faith  expressed 
itself  first  through  a  heavenly  vision  and  then  through  words  of  cheer 
and  inspiration.  Here  we  see  the  reasons  why  Paul  gained  an  in- 
vincible hold  upon  the  affections  and  wills  of  men.  Good  faith,  good 
fellowship,  and  unceasing  confidence  in  the  unlimited  power  and  the 
constant  guidance  of  a  kindly  Providence  inspired  him  and  all  to 
whom  he  spoke.  Even  the  venomous  serpent,  probably  still  par- 
alyzed by  the  cold,  seemed  to  the  onlookers  to  have  no  power  over 
this  man  who  was  in  such  close  league  with  the  Infinite.  Even  the 
sick  were  given  new  hope  and  health  by  his  sympathetic  touch.  The 
miracles  which  Luke  records  seem  but  commonplaces  in  the  life  of 
Paul.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the  apostle  himself  regarded  them 
simply  as  incidental  proofs  of  his  divine  commission.  Before  their 
three  months'  sojourn  was  over,  not  only  the  governor  but  also  the  en- 
tire population  of  the  little  island  of  Malta  were  vying  with  each 
other  in  showing  hospitality  to  the  Roman  prisoner  who  had  appealed 
to  Caesar. 

V.  Paul's  Journey  to  Rome.  After  Paul  and  his  strange  com- 
pany had  spent  three  winter  months  in  Malta  they  set  out  on  an 
Alexandrian  ship  for  Rome.  Instead  of  going  around  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tiber  they  entered  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  landed  at  Puteoli. 
It  was  a  period  when  the  beautiful  Italian  springtime  was  just  burst- 
ing forth  in  its  glory.  Puteoli  was  at  this  time  the  favorite  watering 
resort  of  the  Roman  nobility  whose  magnificent  villas  skirted  the  Bay 

220 


PAUL'S  JOURNEY  TO  ROME 

of  Naples.  Dearer  to  the  heart  of  Paul  than  the  beauties  of  nature 
and  the  creations  of  man  was  the  hearty  welcome  which  he  received 
from  the  Christian  brothers  residing  there.  His  friend,  the  Roman 
centurion,  allowed  him  to  spend  the  week  with  them.  On  his  arrival 
a  messenger  had  evidently  been  sent  to  inform  the  Christians  at  Rome, 
for,  as  he  proceeded  on  his  journey,  a  deputation  met  him  at  the 
Forum  of  Appius,  forty-three  miles  south  of  Rome.  To  Paul  this 
evidence  of  their  loyalty  was  a  great  inspiration.  More  as  a  trium- 
phant conqueror  than  as  a  prisoner  under  a  serious  charge,  he  proceeded 
along  the  famous  Appian  Way  toward  the  Imperial  City  which  he  en- 
tered at  the  Porta  Capsena.  Thence  he  probably  proceeded  through 
the  heart  of  the  city,  viewing  the  Palatine  with  its  stately  palaces  on 
the  left,  past  the  old  Forum  toward  the  northern  side  of  the  city  where 
was  situated  the  camp  of  the  pretorian  guard. 

VI.  The  End  of  the  Race.  Luke  states  that  for  two  years  Paul 
lived  in  his  own  hired  house,  receiving  all  that  came  to  him,  preaching 
the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  teaching  about  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  quite 
openly  and  without  hinderance.  This  remarkable  freedom  may  have 
been  due  to  the  influence  of  his  friend  the  Roman  centurion.  It  was 
entirely  in  keeping  with  the  Roman  custom  of  the  period.  Tacitus 
states  in  his  Annals  (63)  that  Gallio,  the  brother  of  Seneca,  who  had 
been  proconsul  of  Achaia  during  Paul's  activity  at  Corinth  and  who, 
like  the  great  apostle,  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  Nero,  was  thus 
kept  under  guard,  not  in  his  own  hired  house  but  in  the  house  of  a 
Roman  officer.  One  of  Luke's  chief  aims  was  to  show  that,  while  the 
hand  of  Christian  fellowship  had  been  freely  extended  to  the  Jews, 
they  had  almost  invariably  taken  the  initiative  in  persecuting  the 
Christians.  He,  therefore,  departs  from  the  direct  narrative  to  tell 
us  that  Paul,  soon  after  his  arrival,  called  together  the  leading  Jews 
of  Rome,  stated  his  case,  and  appealed  to  their  sense  of  justice.  Not 
having  received  any  news  from  their  fellow  Jews  in  Palestine,  they 
were  at  first  inclined  to  accept  his  story,  but  the  majority  of  them  re- 
fused to  accept  his  teachings.  Luke's  condensed  narrative  leads  us 
to  imply  that  Paul  in  the  end  failed  to  win  that  support  from  the  Jews 
at  Rome  which  he  sorely  needed.  It  was  so  contrary  to  his  character- 
istic tact  to  upbraid  them  for  their  failure  to  accept  the  Christian 
faith  that  it  is  probable  that  this  portion  of  the  narrative  has  been 
somewhat  colored  by  Luke's  apologetic  purpose.  The  significant 
fact  underlying  the  narrative  is  that  Paul  fully  recognized  the  peril 
of  his  position  and  the  importance  of  conciliating,  if  possible,  the  Jews 

221 


THE  AMBASSADOR  IN  BONDS 

at  Rome.  The  abrupt  ending  of  Luke's  narrative  is  in  itself  ominous. 
If  Paul  had  been  liberated  by  the  Roman  emperor,  Luke  would  have 
been  the  first  to  proclaim  this  fact,  for  it  would  have  conserved  as 
nothing  else  could  one  of  the  chief  aims  for  which  he  wrote.  Luke, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  not  writing  a  book  of  martyrs.  Nothing  is 
said  of  the  death  of  Peter,  the  other  leading  character  in  his  history. 
The  death  of  James  is  passed  over  with  the  barest  mention.  The 
martyrdom  of  Stephen  alone  is  recorded  in  detail  because  of  its  power- 
ful influence  on  the  expansion  of  the  Christian  church.  The  tradition 
that  Paul  was  released  to  preach  in  the  West  cannot  be  traced  earlier 
than  the  end  of  the  second  Christian  century  and  was  probably  based 
on  the  apostle's  expression  of  the  hope,  in  Romans  1524,  that  he  might 
live  to  visit  Spain.  The  long  delay  of  Paul's  trial  is  in  perfect  keep- 
ing with  all  that  we  know  about  Nero  and  especially  the  early,  irrespon- 
sible years  of  his  reign  when  he  spent  practically  all  of  his  time  in  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure  and  left  the  direction  of  public  affairs  to  his  old 
teacher  Seneca,  the  Stoic  philosopher,  and  to  Burrus,  the  pretorian 
prefect.  This  long  delay  also  gave  Paul's  Jewish  foes,  of  whom  the 
heads  of  the  priestly  hierarchy  at  Jerusalem  were  the  chief,  an  op- 
portunity to  collect  ample  evidence  against  him.  There  was  much 
that  they  could  present  to  blacken  his  character  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Roman  officials,  who,  in  dealing  with  a  prisoner  charged  with  stirring 
up  sedition,  were  not  so  much  concerned  with  motives  as  with  acts. 
Even  Luke's  narrative  indicates  that  wherever  Paul  went  he  aroused 
bitter  opposition  which  frequently  expressed  itself  in  mob  attack  and 
popular  uproar.  In  II  Timothy  4  we  evidently  have  notes  from  the 
closing  days  of  Paul's  life.  In  414  the  apostle  speaks  of  Alexander 
the  blacksmith:  "He  has  done  me  a  great  harm;  the  Lord  will  pay 
him  back  for  what  he  has  done.  Beware  of  him  for  he  has  been  bit- 
terly hostile  to  everything  that  I  have  said."  It  is  not  impossible  that 
this  is  Alexander  the  Jew  of  Ephesus,  who,  according  to  Acts  1933, 
was  put  forward  as  spokesman  when  the  silversmiths  and  tradesmen 
of  that  temple  city  rose  up  to  mob  Paul  and  his  associates.  In  II 
Timothy  416-  17  Paul  adds  pathetically:  "The  first  time  there  was  no 
one  to  defend  me,  but  all  deserted  me.  May  this  not  be  brought  up 
against  them!  But  the  Lord  supported  me  and  gave  me  strength. 
...  I  was  rescued  from  the  jaws  of  the  lion."  In  the  light  of  u  we 
see  him  alone,  with  only  the  faithful  Luke  to  comfort  him,  fighting  his 
last  great  fight.  Pitted  against  him  were  the  same  foes  that  had, 
under  the  shadow  of  Roman  authority  a  quarter  of  a  century  before, 

222 


THE  END  OF  THE  RACE 

hunted  to  death  his  innocent  Master.  The  analogies  between  the  two 
scenes  are  strikingly  close.  The  actors  and  setting  alone  are  different. 
Jesus  faced  death  at  the  capital  city  of  his  nation.  Paul  the  Roman 
citizen  died  at  the  capital  of  the  empire  to  which  he  owed  allegiance. 
Clement  of  Rome,  who  lived  near  the  close  of  the  first  century,  wrote : 
"Paul  by  his  example  pointed  out  the  prize  of  patient  endurance,  .  .  . 
he  won  the  noble  renown,  which  was  the  reward  of  his  faith,  having 
taught  righteousness  to  the  whole  world  and  having  reached  the 
farthest  bounds  of  the  West.  And  when  he  had  borne  his  testimony 
before  the  rulers,  he  departed  from  the  world  and  went  into  the  holy 
place,  having  been  found  a  notable  example  of  patient  endurance." 
Tertullian,  who  wrote  in  the  second  century,  is  more  explicit:  "Paul 
has  for  his  crown  the  same  death  with  John  (the  Baptist)."  And 
Origen,  early  in  the  third  century,  states  definitely  that  Paul  "suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  Rome  under  Nero."  Paul  was  probably  beheaded 
at  Rome  in  57  or  58  a.d.,  early  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  II  Timothy 
46-8  we  have  his  final  song  of  triumph:  "I  am  already  being  poured 
out  as  a  drink  offering  and  my  time  to  go  has  come.  I  have  fought 
the  good  fight,  I  have  run  the  race,  I  have  kept  the  faith.  Hence- 
forth there  is  left  for  me  the  crown  of  righteousness  which  the  Lord, 
the  righteous  judge,  shall  give  me  on  that  great  day — and  not  only 
to  me  but  to  all  who  have  loved  the  thought  of  his  appearing." 

§  CLXIV.     THE  LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

Paul,  a  prisoner  of  Jesus  Christ  and  Timothy  our  brother,  Greet- 
to  our  beloved  fellow-worker,  Philemon,  to  our  sister  Apphia,   (pghi. 
to  our  fellow-soldier,  Archippus,  and  to  the  church  which  J^mon 
meets  in  your  house.     May  grace  and  peace  be  granted  you 
all  from  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

I  always  give  thanks  to  my  God  when  I  mention  you  in  Thanks- 
my  prayers ;  for  as  I  hear  of  your  love  and  faith  which  you  f™6 
manifest  toward  the  Lord  Jesus  and  to  all  the  saints,  I  pray 
that  their  participation  in  your  faith  may  result  in  their 
gaining  a  clear  knowledge  of  all  the  good  we  enjoy  through 
our  relations  to  Christ.  For  I  have  had  great  joy  and  com- 
fort in  your  love,  my  brother,  because  the  hearts  of  the  saints 
have  been  refreshed  through  you. 

Therefore,  although  in  Christ  I  might  be  quite  free  to- 
ward you  to  command  you  to  do  what  is  fitting,  I  appeal  to 

223 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

you  rather  on  the  ground  of  love.  So  as  Paul,  the  old  man, 
who  is  now  a  prisoner  for  Christ  Jesus,  I  appeal  to  you  on 
behalf  of  my  spiritual  child  who  was  born  while  I  was  in 
chains — Onesimus !  Once  you  found  him  worthless,  but  now, 
true  to  his  name  (Profitable),  [he  is  worth  something  both 
to  you  and  to  me.  I  am  sending  him  back  to  you,  though 
it  means  parting  with  my  very  heart.  I  would  have  liked  to 
keep  him  with  me,  that  in  your  stead  he  might  serve  me 
during  my  imprisonment  for  the  gospel;  but  I  wish  to  do 
nothing  without  your  consent,  so  fiat  this  kind  act  of  yours 
might  not  be  done  under  compulsion  but  of  your  own  free  will. 
Perhaps  it  was  for  this  very  reason  that  he  was  parted 
from  you  for  a  while,  that  you  might  receive  him  back  for 
good,  no  longer  as  a  slave  but  something  more  than  a  slave 
— a  brother,  peculiarly  dear  to  me,  but  even  dearer  to 
you  both  as  a  human  being  and  as  a  fellow  Christian ! 
Therefore  if  you  regard  me  as  a  partner,  then  receive  him 
as  you  would  me.  And  if  he  has  done  anything  dishonest 
or  owes  you  any  sum,  put  that  down  to  my  account:  *  I, 
Paul,  write  this  with  my  own  hand,  I  will  pay  it  back.'  (I 
say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  you  owe  me,  over  and  above, 
your  very  soul.)  Yes,  brother,  let  me  have  some  return 
from  you  in  the  Lord  !    Refresh  my  heart  in  Christ. 

I  write  you,  trusting  in  your  obedience.    I  know  you  will 
do  even  more  than  I  say,  and  at  the  same  time  get  quarters 
ready  for  me,  for  I  hope  that  through  your  prayers  I  may  be 
sent  back  to  you ! 
con-  Epaphras,  my  fellow  prisoner  in  Christ,  salutes  you,  as 

SjS5  do  a1*30  Mark,  Aristarchus,  Demas  and  Luke,  my  fellow- 
**?£,      workers. 

May  the  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  your 
spirit.    Amen. 


(M-25) 


Paul,  an  apostle  of  Christ  Jesus  by  the  will  of  God,  and 
Timothy,  our  brother,  to  the  consecrated  and  faithful 
brothers  in  Christ  at  Colossae.  May  grace  and  peace  be 
granted  to  you  from  God  our  Father. 
Thanks-  We  always  give  thanks  to  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord 
(al)ng  Jesus  Christ,  when  we  pray  for  you  because  we  have  heard 
of  your  faith  in  Christ  Jesus  and  of  the  love  which  you  cher- 

224 


THANKSGIVING  FOR  FAITH   OF  THE   COLOSSIANS 

ish  for  all  the  saints  on  account  of  the  hope  laid  up  for  you 
in  heaven.  You  have  heard  of  this  hope  in  the  message  of 
gospel  truth  which  has  come  to  you,  as  it  spreads  over  all 
the  world,  yielding  fruit  and  increasing,  as  it  also  has  done 
among  you  from  the  day  that  you  heard  it  and  learned  to 
know  what  God's  grace  really  is,  as  indeed  you  did  learn 
to  know  it  from  Epaphras,  our  beloved  fellow  servant. 
He  is  a  faithful  minister  of  Christ  in  your  behalf  and  it  is 
he  who  has  informed  us  of  your  love  in  the  Spirit. 

Now  I  rejoice  in  my  sufferings  in  your  behalf,  and  I  would  Pauls 
make  up  in  my  own  person  whatever  is  lacking  of  the  suf-  gj?fn~ 
ferings  which  Christ  has  to  suffer  in  behalf  of  his  body,  the  behalf 
church.    I  have  been  appointed  a  minister  of  the  church  Gen-e 
in  the  position  intrusted  to  me  by  God  in  your  interests,  ^S-i*) 
to  present  God's  message  fully,  even  that  secret  which, 
though  concealed  from  all  ages  and  generations,  now  has 
been  disclosed  to  his  saints.     God  willed  that  they  should 
understand  the  glorious  wealth  which  this  secret  holds  for 
the  Gentiles — this  secret  which  is  Christ  in  you  as  your 
hope  of  glory.     Him  we  proclaim,  training  and  teaching 
every  man  in  all  wisdom  in  order  that  we  may  present 
every  man  before  God,  perfect  in  Christ.    For  this  end  I 
labor,  striving  with  a  divine  energy  which  is  working  might- 
ily within  me.     Yes,  I  want  you  to  know  how  severe  is 
the  struggle  in  which  I  am  engaged  in  behalf  of  you  and 
the  brothers  in  Laodicea  and  for  all  who  have  never  seen 
my  face,  that  their  hearts  may  be  encouraged,  that  they 
may  be  welded  together  in  love,  that  they  may  have  all  the 
wealth  of  conviction  that  comes  from  insight,   and  that 
they  may  know  the  secret  of  God  which  is  Christ,  in  whom 
all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  lie  hidden ! 

Therefore,  since  you  have  received  the  Messiah,  even  Christ's 
Jesus  the  Lord,  live  your  life  in  him,  being  firmly  rooted  J*t£ 
and  founded  in  him,  confirmed  in  the  faith,  as  you  have  and 
been  taught  it,  and  filled  to  overflowing  with  gratitude  to  Po™r 
God.    Take  care  lest  anyone  lead  you  away  prisoner  by  his   (612) 
philosophy  or  idle  fancy  based  on  human  tradition,  or  on  a 
belief  in  the  elemental  spirits  of  the  world  and  not  on  Christ. 
For  it  is  in  Christ  that  the  entire  fullness  of  the  divine  na- 
ture dwells  embodied  and  in  him  you  are  made  perfect. 

225 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

It  is  he  who  is  the  head  of  all  rulers  and  powers;  in  him 
you  have  also  been  circumcised  with  a  circumcision  not 
performed  by  human  hand,  but  with  Christ's  own  circum- 
cision, which  consists  in  the  putting  off  of  the  body  of  flesh, 
for  you  were  buried  with  him  in  baptism  and  thereby  raised 
with  him  through  faith  in  the  power  of  God  which  raised 
him  from  the  dead. 
what         If,  therefore,  you  have  risen  with  Christ,   seek  those 
j£eans    things  which  are  above,  where   Christ  is   seated  at  the 
to  be     right  hand  of  God.     Mind  what  is  above  and  not  what  is 
with      on  the  earth.    Do  not  tell  lies  to  one  another,  for  you  have 
(JfS*    stripped  off  the  old  mankind  with  its  practices  and  have  put 
•-")        on  the  new  mankind,  which  is  being  renewed  in  knowledge 
in  the  likeness  of  its  Creator.  In  that  new  creation  there 
is  neither  Greek  nor  Jew,  circumcised  nor  uncircumcised, 
barbarian,  Scythian,  slave  nor  freeman ;  but  Christ  is  every- 
thing and  in  all  of  us. 
The  Therefore,  as  God's  own  chosen,  consecrated  and  be- 

dTnces  loved,  be  clothed  with  compassion,  kindness,  humility, 
cfhriset  gentleness,  patience.  Bear  with  one  another  and  forgive 
ltfe^  one  another,  if  anyone  has  a  complaint  against  another. 
Just  as  the  Lord  forgave  you,  so  you  must  forgive.  And 
above  all  you  must  have  love,  for  it  is  that  which  binds  to- 
gether the  perfect  life.  Also  let  the  peace  which  Christ 
gives  reign  supreme  in  your  hearts.  For  this  end  you  have 
been  called  to  be  members  in  one  body.  Also  be  thankful. 
Let  the  message  of  Christ  dwell  within  you  in  rich  measure. 
Teach  and  train  one  another  in  all  wisdom  by  means  of 
psalms,  hymns  and  spiritual  songs.  Sing  to  God  with 
thankfulness  in  your  hearts,  and  whatever  you  do  in  word 
or  deed,  do  all  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  giving  thanks 
through  him  to  God  the  Father.  Children,  obey  your  par- 
ents at  every  point,  for  this  is  right  for  those  who  belong  to 
the  Lord.  Fathers,  do  not  irritate  your  children  lest  you 
make  them  sullen.  Servants,  obey  your  earthly  masters  in 
everything,  not  only  when  their  eye  is  on  you,  as  those  who 
aim  simply  to  please  men,  but  with  single  purpose,  be- 
cause you  revere  the  Lord.  Whatever  you  are  doing,  work 
at  it  heartily,  as  servants  of  the  Lord  and  not  of  men. 
Tychicus,  that  beloved  brother  and  faithful  minister  and 

226 


(12-23) 


PERSONAL  GREETINGS 

fellow  servant  of  the  Lord,  will  give  you  all  the  information  per- 
about  me.    It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  am  sending  him  to  n°^ 
you  that  you  may  know  how  I  am  and  to  comfort  your  (*7, 16# 
hearts.    He  is  accompanied  by  that  faithful  and  beloved 
brother,  Onesimus,  who  is  one  of  yourselves.    They  will 
inform  you  of  everything  here.     And  when  this  letter  has 
been  read  by  you,  let  it  be  read  also  in  the  church  of  the 
Laodiceans.    Also  see  that  you  read  the  letter  that  reaches 
you  from  Laodicea.     The  salutation  is  in  my  own  hand, 
from  Paul.    Remember  me  in  my  imprisonment.    Grace 
be  with  you. 

Paul,  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  by  the  will  of  God,  to  p-reet- 
the  saints  who  are  faithful  in  Christ  Jesus.    May  grace  {^ph, 
and  peace  be  granted  to  you  from  God  our  Father  and  the   !1  2) 
Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

Blessed  be  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Thanks- 
who  hath  blessed  us  with  every  spiritual  blessing  in  the  fllf18 
heavenly  realms  through   Christ!      He   chose  us  in  him 
before  the  creation  of  the  world  that  we  might  be  conse- 
crated and  without  blemish  in  his  sight,  destining  us  to  be 
his  sons  through  Jesus  Christ. 

Therefore,  remember  that  once  you  were  Gentiles  in  The 
the  flesh,  who  are  called  the  *  Uncircumcision '  by  the  so-  Xj°ew 
called  *  Circumcision,'  which  is  the  work  of  human  hands  and 
in  the  flesh.    Remember  that  you  were  at  that  time  out-  we  in 
side   Christ,   aliens   to   the   commonwealth  of  Israel  and 
strangers  to  the  covenants  of  the  promise,  without  hope 
and  without  God  in  the  world.     But  now  in  Christ  Jesus 
you,  who  were  once  far  away,  have  been  brought  near  by 
the  blood  of  Christ.     For  he  is  our  peace — he  who  united 
us  both  and  broke  down  the  hostile  dividing  wall.    In  his 
own  flesh  he  set  aside  the  law  with  its  definite  commands 
so  as  to  make  peace  by  uniting  these  two  parts  in  himself 
into  a  new  mankind.     Thus  in  himself  he  put  an  end  to  that 
hostility  by  reconciling  both  Jew  and  Gentile  to  God  in  one 
body  through  the  cross.    And  he  came  to  proclaim  a  gospel 
of  peace  to  you  Gentiles  who  were  far  away  and  to  the  Jews 
who  were  near,  for  it  is  through  him  that  we  both  have  ac- 
cess by  one  Spirit  to  the  Father. 

227 


Christ 

(211-18) 


Christ 

(11-16) 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

unity        There  is  one  body  and  one  spirit — one  hope  was  held 
church   out  to  you  as  the  goal  of  your  calling — one  Lord,  one  faith, 
(44"6)      one  baptism,  one  God  and  Father  of  all,  who  is  over  us  all, 
acts  through  us  all,  and  is  in  us  all.    But  to  each  of  us  has 
been  given  his  own  grace,  according  to  the  measure  of  the 
gift  of  Christ. 
The  Christ  himself  granted  some  to  be  apostles,  some  to  be 

body  in  prophets,  some  to  be  evangelists,  some  to  be  pastors  and 
teachers,  in  order  that  the  saints  may  be  fully  equipped  for 
the  work  of  service,  that  is,  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  body 
of  Christ,  until  we  all  attain  the  unity  of  the  faith  and  the 
knowledge  of  God's  son,  even  to  the  perfect  manhood  and 
to  the  full  measure  of  maturity  which  belongs  to  the  fullness 
of  Christ,  that  we  may  no  longer  be  babes,  blown  from 
our  course  and  carried  here  and  there  by  every  passing  wind 
of  doctrine,  by  the  adroitness  of  men  who  are  skilful  in  mak- 
ing use  of  every  evil  device  to  mislead.  Rather  we  are  to 
hold  to  the  truth  and  by  our  love  grow  up  wholly  into  union 
with  him  who  is  our  head,  even  Christ.  Dependent  on  him, 
the  whole  body  is  welded  together  and  compacted  by  every 
joint  with  which  it  is  supplied,  and  by  the  due  activity  of 
each  part  the  body  is  enabled  to  grow  so  as  to  build  itself 
up  in  love. 
The  Put  away  all  bitterness  and  passion,  anger,  clamoring 

eriy  "    and  insults,  together  with  all  malice.    Be  kind  to  one  an- 
(JE*     other,  tender  hearted,  forgiving  one  another,  as  God  in 
52)         Christ  has  also  forgiven  you.    Therefore,  be  imitators  of 
God,  as  his  beloved  children,  and  lead  lives  of  love  just  as 
Christ  loved  you  and  gave  himself  up  for  you  to  be  a  fra- 
grant offering  and  sacrifice  to  God. 
Ann-         In  conclusion,  be  strong  in  the  Lord  and  in  the  strength 
Sf  the    of  his  might.    Put  on  the  complete  armor  of  God,  so  as  to 
Jgjg       be  able  to  stand  against  the  stratagems  of  the  devil.    For 
fljct       we  have  to  struggle  not  with  flesh  and  blood  but  against 
rulers   and   authorities,   against  the  forces  which  govern 
this  darkened  world,  against  the  spiritual  hosts  of  evil  ar- 
rayed against  us  in  the  heavens.    Therefore  put  on  the 
complete  armor  of  God  that  you  may  be  able  to  stand  on 
the  evil  day  and  remain  victors  over  all.     Stand,  therefore, 
fastening  the  girdle  of  truth  about  your  loins,  putting  on 
the  breastplate  of  righteousness,  and  having  your  feet  shod 

228 


ARMING  FOR  THE  LONG  CONFLICT 

with  the  preparation  of  the  gospel  of  peace.  Above  all, 
take  the  shield  of  faith  by  which  you  will  be  able  to  quench 
all  the  flaming  darts  of  the  evil  one.  Take  the  helmet 
of  salvation  and  the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of 
God.  Pray  at  all  times  in  the  Spirit,  with  all  manner  of 
prayer  and  entreaty.  Be  alert  to  seize  every  such  oppor- 
tunity, interceding  in  behalf  of  all  the  saints  and  in  my 
behalf  also,  that  speech  may  be  given  me,  that  I  may  ex- 
pound fully  and  openly  the  mystery  of  the  gospel  on  behalf 
of  which  I  am  an  ambassador  in  bonds,  that  I  may  have 
freedom  to  speak  boldly  as  I  ought. 

Our  beloved  brother  Tychicus,  a  faithful  minister  in  the  Per- 
Lord,  will  give  you  all  the  information  about  me,  that  you  n£ 
may  know  how  I  am  doing;  that  is  why  I  am  sending  him  to  (2124) 
you  that  you  may  know  all  about  me  and  that  he  may  en- 
courage your  hearts. 

Peace  and  love  with  faith  be  to  the  brothers  from  God 
the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  May  grace  be 
with  all  who  love  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  sincerely. 

Paul  and  Timothy,  servants  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  all  the  Greet- 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  who  are  at  Philippi,  as  well  as  to  (pghih 
the  bishops  and  deacons:  Grace  and  peace  to  you  from  God  >*■ 2)  ' 
our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

I  thank  my  God  whenever  I  remember  you;  in  all  my  Thanks- 
prayers  for  you  all  I  always  pray  with  joy  because  of  your  co-  fjjp18 
operation  in  furthering  the  gospel  from  the  very  first  day  to  Prot- 
this  moment.    For  of  this  I  am  confident,  that  he  who  began  t£n~of 
the  good  work  in  you  will  go  on  to  perfect  it  until  the  day  of  ?£nC~ 
Jesus  Christ.    It  is  only  right  for  me  to  be  thus  thinking  of  (3U) 
you  all,  for  in  my  prison  and  as  I  defend  and  confirm  the 
gospel,  I  recall  how  you  all  share  with  me  the  same  grace. 
God  is  my  witness  that  I  yearn  for  you  all  with  the  tender 
affection  of  Christ  Jesus  himself.    And  this  is  my  prayer 
that  your  love  may  become  richer  and  richer  in  knowledge 
and  in  all  manner  of  insight,  that  you  may  be  able  to  make 
right  distinctions,  so  that  you  may  be  men  of  transparent 
character  and  that  you  may  do  no  harm  to  any  one,  in  view 
of  the  day  of  Christ,  and  that  you  may  be  full  of  the  fruits  of 
righteousness,  which  come  through  Jesus  Christ  to  the  glory 
and  praise  of  God. 

Now  I  would  have  you  know,  brothers,  that  the  things 

229 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

The       which  have  befallen  me  have  really  tended  to  advance  the 

nate1"     gospel;  throughout  the  whole  of  the  pretorian  guard  and 

effects    everywhere  else  it  is  generally  recognized  that  I  am  im- 

Pauis    prisoned  for  the  sake  of  Christ,  and  most  of  the  brothers 

prison-   have  through  my  imprisonment  gained  greater  confidence 

™3£*     in  the  Lord  to  speak  fearlessly  the  word  of  God. 

^  I  know  that  this  will  result  in  my  release,  because  of  your 

calm      prayers  and  the  supply  of  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  ful- 

Jude      fillment  of  my  earnest  expectation  and  hope  that  I  may 

Jg£^d  never  feel  ashamed,  but  that,  now  as  ever,  by  my  boldness 

or"11      Christ  may  be  honored  in  my  person,  whether  by  life  or 

$?2!f     by  death.    For  me  to  live  is  Christ  and  to  die  is  gain.    But, 

if  it  is  to  live  in  the  body,  this  means  for  me  fruitful  work; 

but  what  I  should  choose  I  know  not.    I  am  in  a  dilemma 

between  the  two.    I  have  a  strong  desire  to  depart  and  be 

with  Christ,  for  that  is  by  far  the  best.    But  for  your  sakes 

it  is  more  necessary  that  I  should  live  on  here  in  the  flesh. 

And  since  I  am  sure  of  this,  I  know  that  I  shall  abide  and 

remain  with  you  all,  to  promote  your  progress  and  joy  in 

the  faith.    Thus  you  will  have  ample  cause  to  glory  in  Jesus 

Christ  over  me,  as  a  result  of  my  again  being  with  you. 

Exhor-       Rejoice  in  the  Lord  always.    Again  I  say,  Rejoice.    Let 

tot!?    vour  forbearance  be   known  to  all  men.    The  Lord  is  at 

joyful    hand.    Be  anxious  about  nothing;  but  in  regard  to  every- 

caim      thing  make  known  your  requests  to  God  in  prayer  and 

(447)      supplication  with  thanksgiving;  so  shall  the  peace  of  God, 

which  surpasses  all  understanding,  keep  guard  over  your 

hearts  and  your  minds  in  Christ  Jesus. 

pher-         Finally,  brothers,  whatsoever  things  are  true,  whatsoever 

nobie     things  are  honest,  whatsoever  things  are  just,  whatsoever 

^oughts things  are  pure,  whatsoever  things  are  lovely,  whatsoever 

things  are  of  good  repute — if  there  be  any  virtue  or  anything 

worthy  of  praise — think  on  these  things.    Practise  also  what 

you  have  learned  and  received  and  heard  and  seen  in  me; 

then  the  God  of  peace  will  be  with  you. 

But  I  rejoice  in  the  Lord  greatly  that  now  at  length  you 
have  revived  your  thoughtfulness  for  me;  for  you  were 
ever  thoughtful,  but  you  lacked  opportunity.  Not  that  I 
speak  of  want,  for  I  have  learned  how  to  be  content  wher- 
ever I  am.    I  know  how  to  live  humbly;  I  also  know  how  to 

230 


THANKSGIVING  FOR  KINDNESS 

live  amidst  abundance.    I  have  been  initiated  into  each  Thanks 
and  every  secret  of  life,  both  of  plenty  and  of  hunger,  of  p°rai-e 
abundance  and  of  want.    I  can  do  all  things  in  him  who  g£jj_ 
strengthened  me.    Yet  it  was  beautiful  of  you  to  share  in  ness 
my  affliction.    You  Philippians  know  well  that,  in  the  be-  phiup- 
ginning  of  the  gospel,  when  I  departed  from  Macedonia,  no  ]^is_ 
church  but  yours  had  any  communication  with  me  about  tiara 
giving  and  receiving;  even  when  I  was  in  Thessalonica 
you  sent  money  once  and  again  for  my  needs.    It  is  not  the 
money  I  am  anxious  about,  but  what  I  am  anxious  about 
is  the  interest  that  accumulates  in  this  way  to  your  credit! 
I  have  enough  of  everything  and  more  than  enough.    I 
am  amply  supplied  with  what  you  sent  by  Epaphroditus ; 
it  is  a  fragrant  perfume,  a  sacrifice  acceptable,  well  pleasing 
to  God.    And  my  God  will  supply  all  your  own  needs  from 
his  wealth  in  glory  in  Christ  Jesus.     Glory  to  God  our 
Father  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen. 

I.  Paul's  Last  Letters.  Bound  in  chains  and  facing  almost 
certain  death,  Paul  continued  to  direct  the  churches  of  his  planting 
by  means  of  letters  and  faithful  messengers.  Five  and  possibly  six 
of  his  surviving  letters  come  from  this  period  of  imprisonment.  They 
fall  into  two  groups.  The  first  group  includes  the  letters  to  Philemon 
and  the  Colossians  and  the  one  which  at  present  bears  the  name 
Ephesians.  From  references  within  them  we  learn  that  all  three 
were  sent  at  the  same  time  in  the  care  of  Tychicus  and  Onesimus  to 
Paul's  friends  in  Asia  Minor.  The  letter  to  the  Philippians  was 
written  when  Paul  had  already  begun  to  feel  the  pinch  of  poverty. 
In  this  letter  he  promises  to  send  Timothy  to  them  ere  long.  In  the 
closing  chapter  of  II  Timothy,  which  is  unquestionably  Pauline,  his 
faithful  fellow  worker  has  already  left  him  and,  save  for  Luke,  he  is 
quite  alone.  This,  therefore,  represents  the  last  of  that  remarkable 
series  of  letters  which  had  come  from  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 
They  contain  Paul's  dying  testament.  In  them  he  has  endeavored 
to  formulate  the  heart  of  the  message  with  which  he  has  been  intrusted 
and  to  explain  the  mystery  of  the  gospel.  As  the  result,  they  are, 
with  the  exception  of  Romans,  the  most  doctrinal  of  his  epistles. 
Under  the  shadow  of  his  coming  death  he  was  evidently  relaxing  his 
hold  on  the  detailed  problems  of  individual  churches.  The  distinctions 
between  Jew  and  Gentile  and  the  conflicts  about  the  ceremonial  law 

231 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

are  but  distant  memories.  Instead  his  thoughts  are  fixed  on  the 
eternal  verities.  As  he  himself  tells  us,  he  is  now  an  old  man.  The 
reader  sometimes  misses  the  fiery  vigor  and  the  crisp  incisiveness  that 
characterize  Paul's  earlier  controversial  letters.  The  strength  and 
charm  of  these  letters  lies  in  the  wealth  of  rich  and  warm  emotion 
which  pervades  them.  The  stream  of  love  and  brotherly  kindness, 
which  runs  through  all  of  his  writings,  now  broadens  and  deepens. 
Paul  is  here  intimately  revealed  as  the  friend  and  loving  adviser  of 
master  and  slave,  of  saint  and  sinner,  of  those  strong  in  the  Christian 
faith  and  of  those  perplexed  with  doubts.  He  is  anxious  about  his 
own  future  only  as  it  will  affect  his  friends.  Like  his  Master,  he 
faces  life  and  death  unafraid.  The  peace  of  Christ  completely  fills 
his  heart  and  brims  over  into  these  peerless  love-letters.  They  also 
develop  certain  profound  and  important  religious  conceptions  which 
he  had  only  hinted  at  in  his  earlier  letters. 

II.  The  Occasion  of  Paul's  Letter  to  Philemon.  Paul's 
letter  to  Philemon  and  that  in  Romans  16  are  the  only  personal  notes 
that  have  survived  from  the  apostle's  voluminous  correspondence. 
From  Colossians  49  we  learn  that  Philemon  was  probably  a  native  of 
the  little  town  of  Colossa?  on  the  great  highway  that  ran  eastward 
from  Ephesus.  Paul's  words  imply  that  he  was  one  of  the  converts 
won  during  the  apostle's  ministry  at  Ephesus.  The  letter  is  addressed 
to  Philemon  and  his  wife  Apphia  and  to  Archippus,  who  was  probably 
their  son.  Philemon  was  evidently  a  wealthy  and  influential  man. 
At  this  home  the  Christian  church  held  its  meetings,  and  Archippus 
was  their  leader.  Among  the  many  whom  Paul  had  attracted  to  him 
through  his  personality  and  preaching,  while  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  was 
the  runaway  slave  Onesimus — a  part  of  the  vast  human  wreckage  that 
gravitated  irresistibly  to  Rome.  The  confession  of  this  genuinely 
converted  slave  revealed  the  fact  that  he  had  once  belonged  to  Paul's 
friend  Philemon  and  that  he  had  not  only  run  away  but  had  probably 
stolen  from  his  master.  Both  of  these  offenses,  according  to  Roman 
law,  were  punishable  by  death.  Paul's  faith  in  the  social  efficiency 
of  Christianity  is  signally  illustrated  by  what  he  did.  Into  the  hands 
of  the  runaway  slave  he  put  this  letter  and  confidently  sent  him  back 
to  his  master.  It  breathed  the  spirit  of  good-fellowship,  mutual 
confidence,  and  brotherly  kindness.  It  reveals  a  democracy  that  over- 
leaps all  social  distinctions.  With  kindly  humor  that  is  not  the  least 
of  Paul's  many  attractions  he  makes  a  friendly  pun  on  the  name  of 
Onesimus  (Profitable).     It  is  the  letter  of  a  courtly,  noble-minded 

232 


THE  LETTER  TO  PHILEMON 

Christian  gentleman,  forgetful  of  self  and  intent  simply  upon  establish- 
ing goodwill  between  all  men.  It  also  well  illustrates  Paul's  superla- 
tive tact.  Not  by  command,  but  by  an  appeal  to  Philemon's  generosity, 
he  insures  a  hearty  welcome  and  full  forgiveness  for  the  once  dishonest, 
runaway  slave.  This  homely  little  letter  is,  therefore,  of  large  signifi- 
cance, for  it  presents  Christianity  not  in  theory  but  in  practice,  and 
introduces  us  to  two  worthy  citizens  of  the  ideal  Christian  community 
which  Paul  was  seeking  to  make  world-wide. 

III.  The  Purpose  and  Thought  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians.  Like  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  this  letter  was  ap- 
parently written  to  the  members  of  a  church  which  Paul  had  never 
visited.  Its  general  structure  closely  resembles  that  of  the  larger 
epistle.  It  begins  with  the  usual  greeting  and  thanksgiving  (l1-23). 
The  doctrinal  and  most  important  section  is  found  in  l24-223,  the  prac- 
tical applications  in  S1-^6,  and  the  concluding  notes  and  salutations 
in  47*18.  The  occasion  of  the  letter  was  a  visit  of  Epaphras,  a  faith- 
ful Christian,  who  laid  before  Paul  the  complex  problems  which  were 
troubling  the  Christians  of  Colossse.  Colossae,  by  virtue  of  its  geo- 
graphical situation  was  peculiarly  exposed  to  the  gnostic  and  Greek 
influences  which  emanated  from  Ephesus  on  the  west,  and  to  the 
popular  doctrines  of  the  mystic  religions  which  came  pouring  in  from 
the  East.  Certain  Jewish  exorcists,  who  still  insisted  on  the  impor- 
tance of  ceremonial  rites,  such  as  circumcision  and  strict  Sabbath 
observance,  apparently  contributed  to  the  confusion  of  religious  ideas 
and  so  completed  the  bewilderment  of  the  simple-minded  Christians 
of  Colossae.  In  this  epistle  Paul  is  evidently  fighting  the  current 
gnostic  and  mystical  religions  with  their  own  weapons.  It  is  another 
graphic  illustration  of  his  being  "all  things  to  all  men."  His  language 
and  teachings  clearly  show  the  influence  of  his  talks  with  Epaphras. 
Here  beliefs  partially  suggested  in  earlier  epistles  are  expanded.  It 
is  also  possible  that  during  his  imprisonment  Paul  had  been  reading 
certain  current  Jewish  apocalyptic  books.  The  result  is  that  in  this 
epistle  and  in  its  companion,  Ephesians,  the  historical  Jesus  largely 
disappears  and  the  Christ  is  interpreted  in  the  language  of  the  Jewish 
apocalypses.  Like  all  the  Jews  of  his  age,  Paul  firmly  believed  in 
hierarchies  of  angelic  beings  both  good  and  bad.  Through  the  Jewish 
belief  in  personified  Wisdom  his  mind  had  been  opened  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Logos,  set  forth  by  the  Greek  philosophers  and  Philo.  He 
also  appreciated  the  attractions  of  the  mystery-religions,  which  offered 
personal  salvation  through  mystical  unity  with  the  Deity. 

233 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

The  terms  in  which  Paul  sets  forth  his  Christology  in  these  epistles 
are,  therefore,  not  peculiar  to  him  but  a  part  of  his  varied  inheritance. 
His  aim  is  to  make  clear  to  all  types  of  readers  his  profound  conviction 
that  Christ  is  absolutely  supreme  above  all  the  elemental  spirits  of 
earth  and  heaven  and  thus  to  furnish  a  practical  basis  for  unity  and 
to  prevent  discord  and  factiousness.  To  those  familiar  with  Greek 
philosophy  he  declared:  "In  Christ  the  entire  fulness  of  the  divine 
nature  dwells  in  the  body."  To  those  who  inclined  toward  the  pagan 
mystery-religions,  he  said  in  terms  already  familiar  to  them:  "You 
have  been  buried  with  him  in  baptism  and  thereby  raised  with  him 
through  faith  in  the  power  of  God  which  raised  him  from  the  dead." 
The  key  to  the  interpretation  of  his  statements  is  found  in  his  profound 
and  original  conception  of  the  mystical  social  solidarity  of  the  race  and 
of  Jesus'  unique  relation  to  the  ultimate  ideal  community  which  he  calls 
the  "Body  of  Christ."  With  prophetic  insight  he  sees  this  "new  crea- 
tion in  which  there  is  neither  Greek  nor  Jew,  circumcised  nor  uncir- 
cumcised,  barbarian,  Scythian,  slave  nor  freeman;  but  Christ  is  every- 
thing and  in  all  of  us."  This  new  mankind  is  a  product  of  the  mind 
and  work  of  Jesus.  His  life,  his  heroic  sacrifice,  and  his  abiding  spirit 
are  the  essential  creative  forces.  Paul  evidently  has  these  facts  in  mind 
when  he  declares  that  "Christ  is  everything  and  in  all  of  us."  Every 
noble  emotion,  every  spiritual  aspiration,  and  every  prompting  of 
loyalty  to  the  ideal  community  are  felt  by  Paul  to  be  "Christ  in  him." 
Christ  represents  in  Paul's  thought  those  eternal  forces  at  work  in  the 
world  and  in  the  hearts  of  men  that  have  already  broken  down  the  hos- 
tile dividing  wall  between  Jew  and  Gentile  and  are  uniting  by  the  bonds 
of  love  and  brotherhood  all  mankind  into  one  universal  community. 
In  the  light  of  this  profound  conviction  the  Pauline  Christology,  with 
all  its  poetic,  old-world  imagery,  becomes  the  symbol  of  eternal  and 
intelligible  verities. 

IV.  The  Identity  of  the  So=called  "Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians."  One  of  the  perplexing  New  Testament  problems  is  the  strik- 
ingly close  analogy  both  in  structure  and  thought  between  the  epistle 
to  the  Colossians  and  that  addressed  (in  its  present  superscription)  to 
the  Ephesians.  The  absence  of  any  reference  to  specific  conditions  in 
the  Ephesian  church  and  the  relative  lateness  of  the  tradition  embodied 
in  the  superscription  make  it  exceedingly  improbable  that  this  epistle 
was  originally  sent  to  the  Christian  community  at  Ephesus.  In 
Colossians  416  Paul  refers  to  a  letter  which  he  was  sending  to  the  Laodi- 
ceans  and  which  he  wished  the  Christians  of  Colossse  also  to  read. 
Just  why  he  wrote  two  letters  dealing  with  practically  the  same  themes 

234 


THE  IDENTITY  OF  EPHESIANS 

in  very  much  the  same  way  is  not  clear;  but  that  he  did  so  is  on  the 
whole  the  best  explanation  of  the  existence  of  Ephesians.  Laodicea 
was  only  six  miles  from  Colossae,  and  Hierapolis  across  the  Lycus 
River  was  the  home  of  another  Christian  community.  Each  of  these 
Christian  churches  was  confronted  by  the  same  problems.  Realizing 
how  great  was  the  peril  and  possibly  fearing  lest  the  letter  to  the 
Colossians  might  be  lost,  Paul  apparently,  in  the  enforced  leisure  of 
his  imprisonment,  wrote  a  duplicate  letter,  at  the  same  time  modify- 
ing and  expanding  the  original.  It  is  possible  that  this  second  letter 
bore  the  superscription,  "To  the  Laodiceans,"  as  is  suggested  by 
Marcion  and  other  early  authorities.  This  explanation  is,  on  the  whole, 
more  satisfactory  than  that  it  is  the  work  of  an  unknown  Christian 
who  used  Paul's  letter  to  the  Colossians  as  a  foundation  on  which  to 
build  later  doctrines.  Even  though,  like  Colossians,  it  reflects  many 
beliefs  only  hinted  at  in  earlier  epistles  but  found  in  the  complex  of 
religions  which  was  the  background  of  Paul's  work  and  thought,  its 
ideas  are  distinctively  Pauline. 

V.  Paul's  Love=Letter  to  the  Philippians.  The  occasion  of 
Paul's  letter  to  the  Philippians  was  the  visit  of  one  of  their  number, 
Epaphroditus,  who  had  brought  from  them  to  Paul  in  prison  a  gift 
of  much-needed  money.  The  messenger  had  been  seriously  ill  and 
homesick  at  Rome.  He  accordingly  is  to  be  Paul's  messenger  to  the 
Philippian  Christians.  The  apostle's  aim  is  to  express  his  thanks  and 
love,  not  only  for  this  gift  but  for  the  many  which  had  endeared  their 
friendship  and  bound  him  peculiarly  close  to  them.  It  is,  therefore, 
one  of  the  most  intimate  of  his  letters.  His  larger  aim  is  to  set  forth 
his  faith  under  trial  and  thereby  to  strengthen  that  of  his  loyal  friends 
so  that  they  may  enjoy  in  largest  measure  the  peace  and  happiness 
that  the  Christian  life  affords.  Paul's  approaching  death  sanctifies 
and  glorifies  this  letter.  Its  detailed  allusions  light  up  the  darkness 
which  otherwise  shrouds  the  closing  days  of  his  Roman  imprison- 
ment. All  anxieties  and  polemics  have  disappeared.  "Rejoice"  is 
its  key-note.  In  fact  Paul  uses  this  word  so  often  that  in  31  he  ex- 
claims, with  a  characteristic  flash  of  kindly  humor:  "Well  then,  my 
brothers,  rejoice  in  the  Lord.  I  am  repeating  this  word  'rejoice*  in 
my  letter,  but  that  does  not  tire  me  and  it  is  for  you  a  safe  precau- 
tion." Here  is  spontaneously  revealed  the  joy  of  a  runner  who  has 
nearly  completed  his  race — the  joy  of  one  who  speaks  out  of  his  own 
rich  experience.  He  is  still  hoping  that  he  may  be  released  in  order 
to  visit  them,  but  regarding  the  outcome  of  his  trial  he  is  indifferent, 
assured  that,  whether  it  be  life  or  death,  either  is  gain.    In  his  closing 

235 


LAST  LETTERS  OF  THE  AGED  PRISONER 

words  he  expresses  the  wealth  of  his  love  for  them  and  reveals  his 
burning  zeal  to  inspire  each  of  them  with  the  serene  faith  which  made 
life  or  death  for  him  a  joy. 

VI.  Paul's  Contribution  to  Christianity.  Chief  among  the 
many  difficult  tasks  which  the  present  generation  has  undertaken  is 
the  evaluation  of  the  work  of  Paul.  Many  have  contended  that  he 
has  concealed  rather  than  revealed  the  personality  and  teachings  of 
the  Master  whom  he  professed  to  serve.  For  a  generation  the  question 
of  whether  Jesus  or  Paul  is  the  real  founder  of  Christianity  has  been 
hotly  discussed.  That  Paul's  beliefs,  especially  regarding  the  Christ, 
were  influenced  by  his  Jewish  and  Hellenic  inheritances  cannot  be 
questioned.  His  pictures  of  a  pre-existent,  supernatural  Messiah  who 
is  to  come  again  from  heaven  to  judge  mankind  and  to  establish  a  new 
kingdom  on  earth,  is  very  different  from  the  simple  portraits  of  Jesus 
in  the  oldest  gospel  records;  but  he  shared  these  beliefs  with  the  primi- 
tive church.  They  are  not  his  unique  or  permanent  contributions  to 
Christianity.  It  is,  therefore,  unfortunate  that  Christian  theology 
in  the  past  has  been  built  more  on  the  teachings  of  Paul  than  on  those 
of  Jesus.  The  chief  reason  is  because  the  material  which  has  come 
from  Paul  is  far  more  abundant.  His  great  historic  work  was  the  break- 
ing of  the  bonds  of  Judaism.  In  this  task  he  did  not  work  alone,  for 
Stephen  and  many  others  shared  in  this  labor;  but  it  was  Paul  who 
formulated  the  declaration  of  independence  and  commanded  the 
forces  that  effected  the  revolution.  He  grasped  most  clearly  Jesus* 
great  teaching  of  individual  liberty  and  made  it  an  accepted  tenet  in 
the  Christian  church.  Paul  also  found  the  results  of  Jesus'  work  and 
teachings  enmeshed  in  a  narrow  Jewish  environment.  He  brought 
them  out  and  held  them  up  before  the  enraptured  gaze  of  humanity. 
Moreover,  he  interpreted  the  principles  of  Jesus  and  the  beliefs  of  his 
immediate  followers  into  the  language  and  figures  current  in  the  larger 
Grseco-Roman  world  of  his  day.  Thus  Paul  was  the  chief  leader  in 
that  band  of  enthusiastic,  devoted  missionaries  who  transplanted 
Christianity  from  Jewish  to  Gentile  soil.  While  he  was  not  the  first 
Christian  missionary,  he  inspired  and  directed  the  great  missionary 
movement  of  the  first  century  until,  through  his  wise  statesmanship 
and  tireless  activity,  Christianity  had  been  established  in  all  the 
great  cities  of  the  empire.  Paul  also  reared  up  a  large  band  of  efficient 
Christian  preachers  and  teachers,  who  multiplied  his  work  and  carried 
its  influence  to  all  civilized  races. 

In  his  life,  as  well  as  in  his  teachings,  Paul  interpreted  Christianity 

236 


PAUL'S  CONTRIBUTION  TO  CHRISTIANITY 

as  a  personal,  spiritual  fellowship  between  God  and  the  individual; 
at  the  same  time  he  placed  a  profound  emphasis  upon  the  ethical  and 
social  aspects  of  religion.  All  generations  have  recognized  that  Paul's 
warm,  religious  life,  his  devotion  to  his  Master,  and  his  self-sacrificing 
heroism  are  to  be  counted  among  the  richest  heritages  of  Christendom. 
The  present  generation,  however,  is  beginning  to  appreciate  the  su- 
preme value  of  his  contribution  to  the  practical  interpretation  of 
Jesus'  social  teachings.  He  it  was  who  developed  the  logical  and 
concrete  implications  of  his  Master's  ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
On  the  basis  of  his  work  with  the  Christian  communities  which  he 
established  in  the  fields  of  his  missionary  effort  he  perfected  the  plan 
of  an  ideal  community  that  would  include  all  mankind,  that  would 
give  every  man  an  opportunity  through  loyal,  loving  service  to  attain 
fulness  of  life  and  happiness  and  would  realize  in  definite  form  on 
earth  the  lofty,  social  teachings  of  his  Master.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
as  a  theologian  but  as  a  Christian  missionary,  statesman,  and  social 
organizer  that  Paul  has  made  his  greatest  and  most  permanent  con- 
tributions to  Christianity.  The  external  structure  and  the  creeds  of 
historic  Christianity  are  largely  the  results  of  his  building;  but,  as  he 
always  asserted,  the  foundation  on  which  it  is  laid  is  Jesus  Christ. 


237 


11.2) 


CHRISTIANITY  DURING  THE  SECOND 
HALF  OF  THE  FIRST  CENTURY 

§  CLXV.    THE  MESSAGE  OF  HOPE  AND  INSPIRATION  IN 
I  PETER 

Greet-       Peter,  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  to  God's  chosen  people, 
^g        the  exiles  of  the  dispersion  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia, 
Pet2fr     Asia,  and  Bithynia,  chosen  in  accordance  with  the  fore- 
knowledge of  God  the  Father  through  the  sanctifying  work 
of  the  Spirit  to  obey  Jesus  Christ  and  to  be  sprinkled  with 
his  blood.    May  grace  and  peace  be  multiplied  to  you. 
Thanks-      Blessed  be  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ! 
^ng    In  accordance  with  his  great  mercy  he  hath  caused  us  to  be 
future    korn  anew  to  a  living  hope  through  the  resurrection  of 
hope™    Jesus  Christ  from  the  dead,  to  an  inheritance  imperishable, 
(3'9)       undefiled,  and  unfading.    It  has  been  reserved  in  heaven 
for  you  who  are  guarded  by  the  power  of  God  through  faith 
for  a  salvation  which  is  ready  to  be  revealed  at  the  last 
hour.    Rejoice,  therefore,  in  this,  even  though  now  for  a 
short  time  you  may  need  to  suffer  various  trials.    This 
suffering  is  only  for  the  testing  of  your  faith   (far  more 
precious  than  gold  which  perishes  and  yet  is  tested  by  fire), 
and  it  will  be  found  to  result  in  praise  and  glory  and  honor 
at  the  reappearing  of  Jesus  Christ.    Him  you  love,  although 
you  have  not  looked  upon  him.    Though  at  present  you 
cannot  see  him,  you  nevertheless  believe  in  him  and  you 
will  exult  with  an  unspeakable  and  glorious  joy  when  you  ob- 
tain, as  the  object  of  your  faith,  the  salvation  of  your  souls. 
The  Now  that  through  your  obedience  to  the  truth  you  have 

orthis  purified  your  souls  for  a  brotherly  love  that  is  sincere,  love 
SfrTh  one  another  heartily  and  fervently;  for  you  have  been  born 
(22.23.  anew,  not  of  mortal  but  of  immortal  seed  by  God's  ever- 
21"8)  living  and  enduring  word.  So  put  away  all  malice,  all 
deceit  and  insincerity  and  envy  and  slander  of  every  kind! 

238 


submit 
to 


FRUITS  OF  THE  NEW  BIRTH 

Like  newly  born  infants,  thirst  for  the  pure  spiritual  milk, 
that  by  it  you  may  grow  up  to  salvation. 

You  are  the  chosen  race,  the  royal  priesthood,  the  holy  The 
nation,  the  people  who  belong  to  God,  that  you  may  pro-  S|el 
claim  the  excellencies  of  him  who  called  you  out  of  darkness   <9  10) 
into  his  marvelous  light.    Once  you  were  no  people  but 
now  you  are  God's  people.    Once  you  were  unpitied  but 
now  you  are  pitied. 

Beloved,  I  entreat  you  as  sojourners  and  exiles  not  to  Toat- 
indulge  the  fleshly  passions  which  wage  war  upon  the  soul,  the* 
Conduct  yourselves  properly  before  the  heathen,  so  that,  Jg£to 
although  they  now  defame  you  as  evil-doers,  they  may  yet  g5? 
glorify  God,  when  you  are  put  on  trial,  because  they  see  (11,12) 
your  good  deeds. 

Submit  for  the  Lord's  sake  to  every  human  authority,  To 
whether  it  be  the  emperor  as  supreme  or  governors  sent 
by  him  for  the  punishment  of  evil-doers  and  the  encourage-  jjjgj11 
ment  of  those  who  do  what  is  right.  For  it  is  God's  will  q*-v? 
that  by  doing  what  is  right  you  should  silence  the  ignorant 
charges  of  foolish  persons.  Be  free  men,  but  do  not  make 
your  freedom  an  excuse  for  evil  conduct;  rather  be  God's 
true  servants.  Honor  everyone,  love  the  brotherhood,  rev- 
erence God,  honor  the  emperor. 

Household  servants,  be  submissive  to  your  masters  with  Duty 
all  respect,  not  only  to  those  who  are  kind  and  considerate  ^nts" 
but  also  to  those  who  are  surly;  for  it  is  a  merit,  when  from  (18  20) 
a  sense  of  a  duty  to  God  one  patiently  endures  the  pains  of 
suffering  unjustly  inflicted.    For  if  you  do  wrong  and  re- 
ceive a  blow  for  it,  what  credit  is  there  in  your  bearing  it 
patiently?    But  if,  when  you  do  right  and  suffer  for  it,  you 
bear  it  patiently  this  counts  as  a  merit  in  God's  sight. 

It  is  for  this  that  you  were  called,  for  when  Christ  also  Jesus' 
suffered  in  your  behalf,  he  left  you  an  example  that  you  ^^m' 
should  follow  in  his  footsteps.    He  committed  no  sin  nor  was  (21  -*) 
guile  found  in  his  mouth.    When  he  was  reviled  he  reviled 
not  again;  when  he  suffered  he  never  threatened,  but  left 
everything  to  him  who  judgeth  justly.     He  it  was  who  bore 
our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  cross  that  we,  having  died 
as  far  as  our  sins  are  concerned,  may  live  for  righteousness. 
By  his  wounds  you  have  been  healed.    For  you  were 

239 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

straying  like  lost  sheep,  but  now  you  have  come  back  to 

the  Shepherd  and  Guardian  of  your  souls. 

Duties       In  the  same  way  you  wives  must  be  submissive  to  your 

wives     husbands  so  that,  even  if  some  of  these  husbands  do  not 

(314)      believe  the  word,  they  may  be  won  over,  apart  from  the 

word,  through  the  behavior  of  their  wives  when  they  see 

how  reverent  and  blameless  your  behavior  is.    Let  not 

your  adornment  be  merely  outward,  one  of  plaiting  the 

hair,  putting  on  ornaments  of  gold,  or  wearing   apparel. 

Instead,  it  should  be  a  new  nature  in  the  heart  with  the 

incorruptible  beauty  of  a  gentle  and  peaceful  spirit  which 

is  of  rare  value  in  the  sight  of  God. 

ofnus-       Likewise,  you  husbands,  be  considerate,  as  you  live  to- 

(75)11       gether  with  your  wives,  recognizing  that  they  belong  to 

the  weaker  sex.    Also  treat  them  as  heirs,  equally  with 

you,  of  the  gift  of  life,  so  that  your  prayers  may  not  be 

hindered. 

The  Finally,  you  should  all  be  of  one  mind,  sympathetic,  kind 

ti^    to  the  brothers,  compassionate,  humble,  not  paying  back 

SL    ev^  *or  ev^  nor  revimig  when  you  are  reviled,  but  on  the 

reward   contrary  giving  a  blessing  in  return,  for  to  this  end  you 

(512)      have  been  called  that  you  may  inherit  a  blessing,  for, 

He  who  would  love  life, 

And  see  good  days, 

Let  him  restrain  his  tongue  from  evil, 

And  his  lips  from  speaking  guile; 

Let  him  turn  from  evil  and  do  good, 

Let  him  seek  peace  and  pursue  it. 

For  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  on  the  upright, 

And  his  ears  are  open  to  their  cry; 

But  the  face  of  the  Lord  is  set  against  evil-doers. 

The  And  who  will  wrong  you,  if  you  are  zealous  for  that  which 

Kg58"  is  good  ?  Even  if  you  have  to  suffer  for  what  is  right,  you 
Sngthe  are  naPPv-  So  have  no  fear  of  their  threats  nor  be  troubled ; 
faith-  but  in  your  hearts  reverence  Christ  as  Lord,  being  always 
^rS-  ready  with  an  answer  for  any  one  who  asks  you  for  a  reason 
(£mn  f<>r  the  noPe  which  you  cherish.  Yet  answer  with  meek- 
ness and  fear,  preserving  a  good  conscience,  so  that,  when 

240 


THE  BLESSING  AWAITING  THE  FAITHFUL 

you  are  assailed,  those  who  slander  your  good  Christian 
behavior  may  be  put  to  shame.  For  it  is  better  for  you  to 
suffer  for  doing  right,  if  that  be  the  will  of  God,  than  for 
doing  wrong;  for  Christ  also,  once  for  all,  died  for  sins,  a 
just  man  for  unjust  men,  that  he  might  bring  us  to  God. 

Therefore,  since  Christ  has  suffered  in  the  flesh,  you  must  The 
arm  yourselves  with  a  determination  to  do  the  same  (for  ^fij^ 
he  who  has  suffered  in  the  flesh  has  done  with  sin)  that  for  gftirisf  s 
the  rest  of  your  life  in  the  flesh  you  may  be  governed  not  exam- 
by  human  passions  but  by  the  will  of  God.    For  in  the  past  j^?.5) 
you  have  given  time  enough  to  doing  what  the  heathen 
choose  to  do  !    You  used  to  live  lives  of  unbridled  license, 
lust,  hard  drinking,  revelry,  dissipation  and  illicit  idolatry; 
therefore,  they  think  it  strange  that  you  will  not  plunge 
with  them  into  the  same  flood  of  profligacy;  so  they  abuse 
you.    But  they  will  have  to  give  account  to  him  who  stands 
ready  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead. 

Now  the  end  of  all  things  is  near.    Therefore,  keep  a  caiito 
cool  head,  be  calm,  and  pray.    Above  all  be  intent  upon  JSJJ 
loving  one  another,  for  love  hides  a  multitude  of  sins,  serrfce 
Be  hospitable  to  one  another  without  grudging.    You  must 
serve  one  another,  each  with  the  talents  which  he  has  re- 
ceived, as  excellent  stewards  of  God's  manifold  goodness. 
If  anyone  preaches,  let  it  be  as  one  who  utters  the  word 
of  God.    If  anyone  renders  a  service,  let  it  be  in  the  strength 
which  God  supplieth,  so  that  in  everything  God  may  be  glori- 
fied through  Jesus  Christ  to  whom  belongs  the  glory  and 
the  dominion  forever  and  ever.    Amen. 

Beloved,  do  not  be  surprised  at  the  fiery  ordeal,  which  To 
has  come  to  test  you,  as  though  a  strange  experience  had  sSsel? 
befallen  you.    Rather,  since  you  are  sharing  Christ's  suf-  ^s 
ferings,  rejoice  that  when  his  glory  is  revealed  you  may  also 
rejoice  and  exult.    If  you  are  reproached  for  the  sake  of 
Christ,  you  are  happy,  for  then  the  Spirit  of  glory,  even  the 
Spirit  of  God  himself,  is  resting  upon  you.    Let  none  of 
you  suffer  as  a  murderer  or  a  thief  or  an  evil-doer  or  as  one 
who  meddles  with  other  people's  affairs;  but  if  a  man  suf- 
fers for  being  a  Christian,  let  him  not  be  ashamed;  let  him 
rather  glorify  God  for  being  permitted  to  bear  this  name. 

The  time  is  come  for  the  judgment  to  begin  with  the 

241 


ment 

(17-18) 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

The  household  of  God;  and  if  it  begins  with  us,  what  will  be  the 
ISnd-  end  of  those  who  reject  God's  gospel !  If  the  righteous 
{£*  of  man  is  scarcely  saved,  what  will  become  of  the  impious 
judg-  and  sinful !  Therefore,  let  those  who  are  suffering  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  will  of  God,  while  they  continue  in  their 
well-doing,  intrust  their  souls  to  him,  their  faithful  Creator. 
Re-  Now,  I  exhort  the  elders  among  you — I  who  am  also  an 

Suites    elder  and  a  witness  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  a  sharer 
eiders     m  t^ie  glorv  to  ^e  revealed — be  shepherds  of  your  flock  of 
(5i«>      God.    Take   charge  of  them,  not  under  compulsion  but 
willingly,  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  God,  not  for  base 
gain  but  freely,  not  by  way  of  lording  it  over  your  charges 
but  proving  yourselves  patterns  for  the  flock.    Then  when 
the  chief  Shepherd  appears,  you  will  receive  the  unfading 
crown  of  glory, 
of  In  the  same  way  you  younger  men  must  also  submit 

Sg  to  the  elders.  Indeed,  all  of  you  must  gird  yourselves  with 
('"T>  humility  toward  one  another,  for  God  opposeth  the  proud 
but  giveth  grace  to  the  humble.  Humble  yourself,  there- 
fore, under  the  strong  hand  of  God,  so  that  when  it  is  time, 
he  will  raise  you.  Cast  all  your  anxiety  upon  him,  for  he 
careth  for  you. 
au  Be  calm,  keep  awake.    Your  enemy,  the  devil,  is  going 

fSrS6      about  like  a  roaring  lion,  seeking  whom  he  can  devour. 
b§n!     Resist  hi*31*  De  steadfast  in  the  faith,  knowing  that  your 
tested    brothers  in  other  parts  of  the  world  are  passing  through 
(8U)       the  same  sufferings.    And  the  God  of  all  grace  who  hath 
called  you  to  his  eternal  glory  in  Christ,  after  you  have  suf- 
fered for  a  short  time,  will  restore,  establish,  and  strengthen 
you.    The  dominion  is  his  forever  and  ever.    Amen. 
Per-  Through  the  agency  of  Silvanus,  our  faithful  brother  (as 

notes  I  consider  him),  I  have  written  these  few  lines  in  order  to 
encourage  you  and  to  testify  that  this  is  what  the  true  grace 
of  God  is.  Stand  fast  in  it.  The  church  in  Babylon, 
chosen  by  God  like  yourselves,  salutes  you,  as  does  also 
my  son,  Mark.  Salute  one  another  with  a  kiss  of  love. 
Peace  be  to  you  all  who  are  in  Christ. 

I.    The    Later   Years   of   the   Apostle    Peter.    Unfortunately, 
Luke's  interest  is  transferred  in  the  latter  part  of  the  book  of  Acts  so 

242 


(1.-14) 


LATER  YEARS  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PETER 

completely  to  Paul  that  we  are  left  in  almost  complete  ignorance  re- 
garding Peter's  later  activity.  From  Paul's  letter  to  the  Galatians  it 
is  evident  that  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  with  his  zeal  for  the  Jewish 
law,  best  interpreted  the  spirit  of  the  Jerusalem  Christians.  Peter's 
inclination  to  extend  to  the  Gentile  Christians  the  hand  of  fellowship, 
as  has  been  noted  on  one  memorable  occasion,  was  openly  rebuked 
by  James.  This  inclination  probably  explains  (1)  why  Peter  did  not 
remain  at  the  head  of  the  Jerusalem  church  and  (2)  why  he  sought 
other  missionary  fields.  Acts  932-ll18  indicates  that  he  first  turned 
his  attention  to  the  cities  along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  he  ever  returned  to  make  his  permanent  home  at 
Jerusalem.  He  was  not  there  on  the  occasion  of  Paul's  final  visit. 
Early  tradition  says  that  he  became  the  head  of  the  Antioch  church. 
It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  he  made  this  the  centre  of  his  work 
in  Syria.  Paul's  eagerness  to  push  westward  was  perhaps  in  part  due 
to  his  desire,  or  possibly  his  formal  agreement,  to  leave  this  field  to 
Peter  and  his  associates.  It  is  evident  that  Peter's  reputation  and 
authority  steadily  increased.  In  I  Corinthians  l12  Paul  refers  to  the 
Cephas  or  Peter  faction  in  the  church  at  distant  Corinth.  Paul's 
other  later  reference  to  Peter  is  incidental  but  suggestive.  He  claims, 
although  he  evidently  did  not  avail  himself  of  the  right,  "to  travel 
with  a  Christian  wife  like  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  like  the  brothers  of 
the  Lord,  like  Cephas  himself."  It  is  indeed  unfortunate  that  he  did 
not  tell  us  where  Peter  was  wont  to  travel,  but  the  statement  does 
imply  that,  like  Paul  and  most  of  the  early  Christian  apostles,  Peter 
himself  had  entered  upon  the  work  of  an  itinerant  missionary.  The 
complete  absence  of  any  reference  to  Peter  in  Paul's  detailed  letters 
written  during  his  imprisonment  indicates  that,  as  late  as  57  or  58, 
"the  apostle  to  the  circumcision"  had  not  as  yet  transferred  the  field 
of  his  activities  to  Rome. 

II.  Peter's  Martyrdom.  There  are  indications,  however,  even 
in  Acts  that  Peter  became  a  missionary  in  later  years  to  the  Gentiles 
as  well  as  to  the  Jews.  Early  and  late  Christian  traditions  are  all 
agreed  that  he  spent  his  last  days  in  the  Imperial  City  and  there  met 
his  death  at  the  hands  of  Nero.  Clement  of  Rome,  writing  about  100, 
says:  "Peter,  who  on  account  of  unrighteous  jealousy,  endured  not  one 
or  two,  but  many  sufferings,  and  so,  having  borne  his  testimony,  went 
to  his  deserved  place  of  glory,"  is,  like  Paul,  "a  notable  pattern  of 
patient  endurance."  He  adds:  "To  these  men  who  lived  lives  of 
holiness  was  gathered  a  vast  multitude  of  the  elect,  who  by  many 

243 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

indignities  and  tortures,  being  the  victims  of  jealousy,  set  the  finest 
examples  among  us."  Eusebius,  quoting  from  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Corinth  during  the  second  half  of  the  second  century,  states  that 
Peter  and  Paul  both  taught  in  Italy  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  the 
same  time.  He  quotes  also  from  a  certain  Caius,  who  lived  during 
the  last  half  of  the  second  century:  "I  am  able  to  show  the  trophies 
of  the  apostles;  for  if  you  will  go  to  the  Vatican  or  to  the  Ostian  Way, 
you  will  find  the  trophies  of  those  who  laid  the  foundation  of  this 
church."  In  the  light  of  this  early  and  cumulative  testimony,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Peter  went  to  Rome  and  there  met  his  death. 
It  seems  certain,  however,  that  these  events  were  subsequent  to  the 
martyrdom  of  Paul  in  57  or  58.  Indeed,  the  needs  of  the  Roman 
church  may  well  have  drawn  him  to  the  Imperial  City  soon  after  Paul's 
death.  If  Peter  went  to  Rome  in  58  and  met  his  death  during  the 
persecutions  of  Nero  in  64,  he  had  ample  time  in  which  to  reorganize 
the  Roman  church  and  to  establish  the  basis  of  the  traditions  which 
have  grown  up  about  his  work.  Peter's  irenical  spirit  was  well  cal- 
culated to  conciliate  the  large  Jewish  element  in  the  Roman  church 
and  to  unite  them  with  the  ardent  followers  of  Paul.  Thus  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  at  last  the  most  impulsive,  the  most 
unstable,  the  most  outspoken,  and  in  many  ways  the  most  devoted 
of  Jesus'  disciples,  by  his  earnestness  and  his  eagerness  to  serve,  not 
only  received  but  merited  the  highest  honors  that  the  later  church 
had  to  bestow;  also  that  he  was  finally  united  with  his  Master  through 
martyrdom,  not  at  Jerusalem,  the  centre  of  Judaism,  but  at  Rome,  the 
new  religious  capital  of  Christendom. 

III.  The  Growth  of  the  Western  Church.  The  momentum 
given  to  the  spread  of  the  Christian  church  by  Peter  and  Paul  and 
their  associates  increased  rather  than  declined  during  the  last  half  of 
the  first  century.  Before  60  a.d.  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been 
preached  throughout  the  inhabited  world.  For  the  most  part  the 
heroic  activity  which  resulted  in  this  marvellous  growth  is  an  un- 
written chapter  in  human  history.  The  biblical  record  does  not  carry 
us  far  beyond  the  death  of  Paul,  and  the  extra-biblical  Christian  his- 
torians furnish  few  details  regarding  this  important  period.  ■  We 
know  it  chiefly  through  the  results  which  were  clearly  apparent  during 
the  next  century.  Christianity,  like  a  kindling  flame,  had  swept 
along  the  northern  shores  of  Africa  from  Egypt  to  Carthage.  In  all 
the  important  cities  of  Spain,  of  southern  Gaul,  of  Asia  Minor,  as  well 
as  Greece  and  Italy,  strong  and  growing  Christian  communities  were 

244 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  WESTERN  CHURCH 

established.  In  Rome  Christianity  had  become  such  a  prominent 
force  that  it  commanded  the  attention  of  the  Roman  as  well  as  the 
Christian  historians.  As  Luke  asserts  in  his  apostolic  history,  Chris- 
tianity in  its  earliest  days  had  been  fostered  rather  than  persecuted 
by  the  Roman  authorities.  The  first  active  persecution  began  under 
Nero  in  64.  It  was  apparently  confined  to  Rome,  or  at  least  to  Italy, 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  spread  to  the  provinces.  It  tended, 
however,  to  bring  the  Christians  into  prominence.  Doubtless  to  them 
was  transferred  much  of  the  popular  disfavor  that  had  hitherto  been 
reserved  for  the  Jews.  Tacitus  in  his  Annals  (1544)  has  painted  a 
gruesomely  vivid  picture  of  this  persecution.  He  states  that  in  order 
to  overcome  the  persistent  rumor  that  Rome  had  been  set  on  fire  by 
the  command  of  Nero,  the  emperor  "put  in  his  own  place  as  culprits 
and  punished  with  most  ingenious  cruelty,  men  whom  the  common 
people  hated  for  their  shameful  crimes  and  called  Christians.  Christ, 
from  whom  the  name  was  derived,  had  been  put  to  death  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius  by  the  procurator  Pontius  Pilate.  The  deadly 
superstition,  having  been  checked  for  a  while,  began  to  break  out 
again,  not  only  throughout  Judea,  where  this  mischief  first  arose, 
but  also  at  Rome,  where  from  all  sides  all  things  scandalous  and 
shameful  meet  and  become  fashionable.  Therefore,  at  the  beginning, 
some  were  seized  who  made  confessions;  then,  on  their  information,  a 
vast  multitude  was  convicted,  not  so  much  of  arson  as  of  hatred  of 
the  human  race.  And  they  were  not  only  put  to  death,  but  subjected 
to  insults,  in  that  they  were  either  dressed  up  in  the  skins  of  wild 
beasts  and  perished  by  the  cruel  mangling  of  dogs  or  else  put  on  crosses, 
to  be  set  on  fire,  and,  as  day  declined,  to  be  burned,  being  used  as  lights 
by  night.  Nero  had  thrown  open  his  gardens  for  that  spectacle  and 
gave  a  circus  play,  mingling  with  the  people  dressed  with  charioteer's 
costume  or  driving  in  a  chariot.  From  this  arose,  however,  toward 
men  who  were  indeed  criminals  and  deserving  extreme  penalties, 
sympathy,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  destroyed  not  for  the  public 
good,  but  to  satisfy  the  cruelty  of  an  individual."  Under  the  growing 
insistence  of  Rome  that  all  her  subjects  prove  their  loyalty  by  joining 
in  the  common  worship  of  the  emperors,  the  lot  of  the  faithful  Christians 
became  increasingly  difficult.  Under  such  emperors,  however,  as 
Vespasian  and  Titus,  there  was  no  open  persecution. 

IV.  The  Persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Domitian.  Do- 
mitian,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  81  A.D.,  was  an  autocrat  by  nature 
and  relentlessly  crushed  anything  which  suggested  opposition  to  his 

245 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

absolute  authority.  Certain  members  of  the  growing  Christian  sect 
soon  became  the  object  of  his  bitter  persecution.  Originally  Chris- 
tianity appears  to  have  spread  among  the  slaves  and  poorer  classes 
of  the  empire,  but  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  it  mounted  almost  to  the 
throne  itself.  According  to  the  Roman  historian  Cassius  Dio,  in  95, 
the  last  year  of  Domitian's  reign,  he  put  to  death  his  cousin  Flavius 
Clemens  and  banished  his  wife,  Flavia  Domitilla,  who  was  also  related 
to  the  emperor.  "The  charge  of  atheism  was  made  against  both  of 
them,  in  consequence  of  which  many  others  also  who  had  adopted  the 
customs  of  the  Jews  were  condemned.  Some  were  put  to  death, 
others  lost  their  property."  One  of  the  Christian  catacombs  to-day 
bears  the  name  of  Domitilla,  and  many  members  of  her  household  lie 
buried  there.  Strikingly  significant  of  the  place  which  Christianity 
had  already  won  in  the  empire  is  the  fact  that  the  two  sons  of  Clemens 
and  Domitilla  had  been  adopted  by  Domitian  and  named  as  his  suc- 
cessors. Had  not  their  parents'  heresy  been  discovered,  a  Christian 
emperor  would  probably  have  been  crowned  at  Rome  within  less  than 
seventy  years  after  the  death  of  Jesus.  Domitian  does  not  appear 
to  have  instituted  a  wholesale  persecution  of  the  Christians,  but  the 
beliefs  of  the  individual  Christians  rendered  it  almost  impossible  for 
them  to  be  loyal  to  their  Master  and  to  the  rigorous  demands  of  the 
emperor.  The  result  was  that  active  persecution  broke  out  at  many 
points  throughout  the  empire.  Its  severity  was  dependent  to  a  great 
extent  upon  the  policy  of  the  local  Roman  rulers.  Pliny,  the  famous 
Roman  writer,  in  his  letter  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  written  about  112 
A.D.,  throws  much  light  upon  the  earlier  persecutions  and  especially 
upon  the  character  of  the  Christians  and  their  numbers  and  promi- 
nence even  in  the  distant  parts  of  the  empire.  Pliny  had  been  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  province  of  Bithynia  in  northwestern  Asia 
Minor.  His  letter  also  reveals  the  policy  of  Rome  under  the  lenient 
rule  of  Trajan.  Pliny  prefaces  his  letter  with  the  statement:  "It  is 
my  custom,  my  lord,  to  refer  to  you  all  questions  about  which  I  have 
doubts."  Then  he  goes  on  to  speak  of  the  many  Christians  who  had 
been  brought  before  him,  had  confessed  their  beliefs,  and  had  persisted 
in  holding  them,  until  he  had  been  compelled  to  order  them  away  to 
execution.  He  adds:  "There  were  others  of  like  insanity,  but,  because 
they  were  Roman  citizens,  I  noted  them  down  to  be  sent  to  Rome. 
Soon  after  this,  as  it  often  happens,  because  the  matter  had  been 
brought  to  notice,  the  crime  became  wide-spread  and  many  cases  arose. 
.  .  .    Others  who  had  been  named  by  an  informer  said  that  they 

246 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS  BY  DOMITIAN 

were  Christians  and  soon  after  denied  it,  saying,  indeed,  that  they  had 
been,  but  had  ceased  to  be  Christians,  some  three  years  ago,  some  many 
years,  and  one  even  twenty  years  ago.  .  .  .  They  asserted,  however, 
that  the  amount  of  their  fault  or  error  was  this:  that  they  had  been 
accustomed  to  assemble  on  a  fixed  day  before  daylight  and  sing  by 
turns  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  a  god;  and  that  they  bound  themselves  with 
an  oath,  not  for  any  crime,  but  rather  not  to  commit  a  theft,  or  robbery, 
or  adultery,  not  to  break  their  word,  and  not  to  deny  a  deposit  when 
demanded.  After  these  things  were  done  it  was  their  custom  to  depart 
and  meet  together  again  to  take  food,  but  ordinary  and  harmless  food; 
and  they  said  that  even  this  had  ceased  after  my  edict  was  issued,  by 
which,  according  to  your  commands,  I  had  forbidden  the  existence  of 
clubs.  On  this  account  I  believed  it  the  more  necessary  to  find  out 
from  two  maid-servants,  who  were  called  deaconesses,  and  that  by 
torture,  what  was  the  truth.  I  found  nothing  else  than  a  perverse 
and  excessive  superstition.  I  therefore  adjourned  the  examination 
and  hastened  to  consult  you.  The  matter  seemed  to  me  to  be  worthy 
of  deliberation,  especially  on  account  of  the  number  of  those  in  danger. 
For  many  of  every  age,  every  rank,  and  even  of  both  sexes,  are  brought 
into  danger,  and  will  be  in  the  future.  The  contagion  of  that  super- 
stition has  penetrated  not  only  the  cities  but  also  the  villages  and 
country  places."  To  this  letter  Trajan  replied,  commending  Pliny's 
policy  and  stating  that  the  Christians  were  not  to  be  sought  out  but 
if  they  were  accused  and  convicted,  they  were  to  be  punished.  He  also 
commanded  that  every  opportunity  be  given  them  for  repentance 
and  that  anonymous  accusations  should  not  be  admitted.  These  re- 
markable letters  make  vividly  clear  the  painful  condition  in  which  the 
Christians  found  themselves  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  from  the 
days  of  Domitian  and  give  the  reader  a  definite  conception  of  the  back- 
ground of  the  first  epistle  of  Peter,  of  Hebrews,  and  of  the  book  of 
Revelation,  all  of  which  are  the  outgrowth  of  a  period  of  bitter  and 
prolonged  persecution. 

V.  The  Aim  and  Contents  of  I  Peter.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that 
I  Peter,  according  to  its  superscription,  was  written  to  certain  of  the 
Christians  of  Bithynia,  regarding  which  Pliny  writes  in  his  letter  to 
Trajan.  Like  Paul's  epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Laodiceans,  I 
Peter  was  intended  to  be  passed  on  from  one  Christian  community 
to  another.  The  provinces  to  which  it  is  addressed  lie  in  northwestern 
Asia  Minor.  The  order  in  which  they  are  mentioned  probably  repre- 
sents the  natural  itinerary  of  the  messenger  who  bore  the  epistle.    If 

247 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

so,  he  would  land  first  at  Pontus  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Black  Sea 
and  thence  go  southward  through  Galatia,  turning  westward  toward 
Cappadocia  and  Asia,  and  thence  northward  through  Bithynia,  whence 
he  could  return  by  water  or  the  direct  highway  overland  to  Rome. 
The  opening  paragraph,  following  the  greeting,  states  the  aim  of  the 
letter.  It  was  to  keep  alive  the  hopes  and  to  encourage  the  Christians 
in  the  presence  of  strong  temptations  and  bitter  persecutions.  The 
general  introduction,  which  ends  with  210,  is  intended  to  set  forth  the 
beliefs  which  are  the  inspiration  of  the  persecuted  Christians.  In 
2n-312  the  author  aims  to  define  their  duties  toward  unbelievers  and 
toward  each  other  in  their  social  relations.  This  is  all  summed  up  in 
38,  9.  Chapters  313-4n  picture  the  blessings  awaiting  those  who  do 
right  and  patiently  endure  suffering  for  the  sake  of  their  faith.  The 
thesis  is  presented  in  the  opening  verses  (313, 14)  and  summed  up  in 
47"11.  The  section  412-5n  contains  an  exhortation  to  be  courageous  in 
suffering  and  places  special  emphasis  upon  the  obligations  of  the 
elders  and  the  young  men  in  the  Christian  communities.  Again  the 
opening  verses  t12,  13)  contain  the  thesis  and  the  concluding  verses 
(58"11)  the  summary.  Brief  personal  notes  are  found  in  512"14.  The 
epistle  is  characterized  by  its  complex  yet  classical  Greek  style,  by  its 
remarkably  symmetrical  structure,  and  by  its  broad,  hopeful,  cou- 
rageous spirit.  It  was  well  calculated  to  calm  and  steady  the  terrified, 
wavering  Christians,  for  whom  it  is  written.  From  the  allusions  in 
the  opening  verses  of  chapter  4  it  appears  that  those  to  whom  the 
epistle  or  homily  is  addressed  were  converts  from  paganism  who  were 
familiar,  through  bitter  personal  experience,  with  the  hideous  vices 
which  were  prevalent  throughout  the  Grseco-Roman  world. 

VI.  Authorship  and  Date  of  I  Peter.  The  superscription, 
"Peter  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,"  appears  to  answer  at  once  the 
question  of  authorship,  but  the  epistle  itself  contains  data  which  pre- 
sent one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  with  which  the  New  Testament 
reader  is  confronted.  Certain  indications  point  directly  to  Peter,  the 
disciple,  as  the  author.  Many  phrases  and  ideas,  as,  for  example,  the 
assertion,  in  l17,  that  God  judges  every  one  impartially  is  a  reassertion 
of  the  apostle's  word  as  reported  in  Acts  1034.  So,  also,  the  privilege 
of  sharing  Christ's  sufferings  is  emphasized  both  in  I  Peter  413« 16  and 
in  Acts  541.  The  beliefs  set  forth  in  this  homily,  and  especially  the 
expectations  regarding  the  speedy  reappearance  of  Jesus  to  judge  all 
mankind,  suggest  the  simple  faith  of  the  primitive  Christian  church. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  Peter,  the  Galilean 

248 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE 

peasant,  accustomed  to  the  Aramaic  tongue,  could  acquire  the  rela- 
tively finished  Greek  style  which  is  found  in  this  homily.  As  has  also 
been  shown  in  a  detailed  study  (cf.  Foster,  The  Literary  Relations  of  I 
Peter),  two  hundred  and  eighteen  passages  in  this  short  book  are  either 
directly  dependent  upon  or  closely  related  to  three  of  Paul's  epistles 
(Rom.,  Eph.,  and  I  Cor.).  These  references  represent  half  of  the 
book.  As  has  been  definitely  demonstrated,  I  Peter  is  a  literary 
mosaic.  It  quotes  largely  from  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  author  was  also  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  (cf.,  e.  g.,  225  and  Wisd.  I6  and  313,  or  320  and  Wisd.  145- 6) 
and  with  II  Maccabees.  There  are  also  many  points  of  contact  with 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  dependence 
is  on  the  side  of  I  Peter.  On  the  other  hand,  this  homily  is  quoted  by 
the  author  of  James  and  also  by  Clement  of  Rome,  who  wrote  about 
100  a.d.  Even  more  significant  are  the  repeated  allusions  to  the  per- 
sistent persecutions  to  which  the  "exiles  of  the  dispersion,"  that  is, 
the  Christians  scattered  throughout  the  Roman  Empire,  are  subjected. 
The  only  historical  situation  which  fully  meets  these  conditions  is 
furnished  by  the  reign  of  Domitian,  81-96.  They  are  in  exact  accord 
with  those  which  Pliny  found  in  Bithynia  a  decade  or  two  later.  While 
it  would  have  been  chronologically  possible  for  Peter  to  have  written 
this  homily  before  his  death,  the  persecutions  of  Nero,  as  reported 
by  the  Roman  and  Christian  historians,  do  not  present  the  back- 
ground implied  in  I  Peter.  Pliny's  reference  to  a  Christian  who 
declared  that  he  had  recanted  twenty  years  before  may  well  be  a  di- 
rect allusion  to  the  persecution  which  our  author  contemplated.  In  the 
light  of  all  the  facts,  therefore,  it  seems  probable  that  I  Peter  was  written 
between  90  and  95  a.d.,  although  an  earlier  dating  in  the  reign  of  Nero 
is  not  absolutely  excluded. 

In  certain  respects  this  homily  presents  a  striking  analogy  to  the 
first  half  of  the  book  of  Acts.  In  both  books  Paul  is  clearly  the  more 
original,  pioneer  spirit.  His  convictions  and  energy  dominate  the 
situation;  but  the  authors  of  each  of  these  writings  reveal  a  strong  de- 
sire to  give  to  Peter  a  certain  pre-eminence.  In  each  writing  the  aim 
also  is  to  reconcile  the  thought  of  these  two  great  leaders  in  the  apos- 
tolic church.  In  Acts  the  earlier  differences  were  passed  over  in  silence. 
In  I  Peter  many  of  the  ideas  and  striking  phrases  of  Paul  reappear 
under  the  name  of  the  Galilean  apostle.  The  explanation  of  this 
surprising  phenomenon  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the  unusual  phrase, 
"through  Silvanus,"  which  is  found  in  the  postscript  to  the  epistle. 

249 


MESSAGE  OF  INSPIRATION  IN  I  PETER 

The  identity  of  Silvanus  is  not  certain.  This  postscript  indicates 
that  he  was  Peter's  scribe.  The  preposition  that  is  used,  as  well  as 
the  context,  implies  that  he  was  more.  If  the  epistle  was  dictated  by 
the  Galilean  apostle  the  present  Greek  form  of  the  epistle  is  probably 
the  work  of  the  amanuensis.  Furthermore,  if  Silvanus  or  Silas  is  the 
one  who  accompanied  Paul  in  his  second  missionary  journey,  the 
prominence  of  Pauline  ideas  and  phrases  is  easily  explained.  The 
broad  outlook  of  the  epistle,  the  mention  of  "my  son  Mark"  in  the 
concluding  verses,  and,  above  all,  of  the  church  in  Babylon,  as  the 
church  which  sends  greetings,  point  to  Rome  as  the  place  where  this 
epistle  was  written.  Tradition  furnishes  not  the  least  evidence  that 
Peter  ever  visited  Babylon  or  that  Christianity  by  the  middle  of  the 
first  century  had  penetrated  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
As  in  later  Christian  literature,  Babylon  is  beyond  reasonable  doubt  a 
symbolic  designation  for  corrupt  Rome,  even  as  "my  son"  is  applied 
to  Mark,  not  literally  but  symbolically.  The  conclusion  which  on 
the  whole  best  satisfies  these  complex  facts  is  that  the  central  teach- 
ings in  the  epistle  came  originally  from  the  lips  of  Peter,  but  that  the 
letter  in  its  present  form  is  largely  the  work  of  Silvanus  or  Silas.  Writ- 
ing as  he  probably  did  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  decade  of  the  first 
century,  when  the  controversy  between  Jew  and  Gentile  Christian, 
between  Peter  and  Paul,  was  practically  forgotten  and  when  Paul's 
teachings  had  broadened  and  deepened  the  current  of  Christian 
thought,  he  unconsciously,  if  not  deliberately,  blended  the  teachings 
of  the  two  great  apostles  and  sent  the  epistle  forth  in  the  name  of 
Peter  as  a  practical  message  of  hope  and  encouragement  to  the  perse- 
cuted Christians  in  the  distant  provinces. 

§  CLXVI.    THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

God's         God,  who  in  ancient  days  spoke  to  our  forefathers  in  many 

Jreme    forms  and  fashions  through  the  prophets,  has  at  the  end  of 

tfonlar   tnese  days  spoken  to  us  through  a  Son  whom  he  appointed 

through  heir  of  all  things,  as  it  was  through  him  that  he  created  the 

(hS?    universe.    He,  reflecting  the  brightness  of  God's  glory  and 

,w)       being  the  exact  image  of  God's  own  character,  upholds  all 

things  by  his  word  of  power.    After  he  had  secured  our 

purification  from  sins,  he  sat  down  at  the  right  hand  of  the 

majesty  on  high,  having  become  as  far  superior  to  the 

angels  as  the  name  he  has  inherited  is  superior  to  theirs. 

250 


CHRIST'S  SUPERIORITY  TO  ANGELS 
For  to  what  angel  did  God  ever  say,  Christ's 

superi- 
ority to 

Thou  art  my  son,  ?5nfS 

I  have  this  day  become  thy  Father?  '  ' } 

Or  again, 

I  will  be  a  father  to  him, 
And  he  will  be  my  son. 

He  says  to  the  Son, 

Thou  didst  found  the  earth  at  the  beginning,  O  Lord, 

And  the  heavens  are  the  work  of  thy  hand. 

They  will  perish,  but  thou  remainest, 

They  will  all  grow  old  like  a  garment, 

And  thou  wilt  roll  them  up  like  a  mantle, 

And  like  a  garment  they  shall  be  changed, 

But  thou  art  the  same, 

And  thy  years  will  never  fail. 

For  it  was  fitting  that  God,  for  whom  and  by  whom  all  signm- 
things  exist,  after  he  had  brought  many  sons  to  glory,  should  If10* 
perfect  by  suffering,  the  Pioneer  of  their  salvation,  for  both  Christ's 
he  who  sanctifies  and  those  who  are  sanctified  all  have  one  t^6T' 
Father.    It  was  necessary  that  he   should  resemble  his  S^"' 
brothers  in  every  respect  in  order  to  prove  a  merciful  and 
faithful  high  priest  in  all  things  divine,  and  in  order  to  atone 
for  the  sins  of  the  people.    For,  inasmuch  as  he  has  suffered 
by  his  temptations,  he  is  able  to  help  those  who  are  tempted. 

Therefore,  holy  brothers,  you  who  share  a  heavenly  Christ's 
calling,  fix  your  thoughts  on  Jesus,  the  apostle  and  high  s^tfl'0 
priest  of  our  confession.  He  was  faithful  to  those  who  ap-  Moses 
pointed  him,  just  as  Moses  also  was  faithful  in  all  God's 
house.  For  Jesus  has  been  counted  worthy  of  greater 
glory  than  Moses,  inasmuch  as  the  founder  of  the  house 
enjoys  greater  honor  than  the  house  itself.  For  every 
house  is  founded  by  some  one,  but  God  is  the  founder  of 
all  things.  Moreover,  Moses  was  faithful  in  all  God's 
house  as  an  attendant,  in  order  to  bear  witness  to  the  things 
which  are  to  be  revealed;  but  Christ  was  faithful  as  a  Son 

251 


O1"7) 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

over  God's  house,  and  we  are  that  house,  if  we  hold  firm  to 
the  end  the  confidence  and  the  pride  in  our  hope. 
our  Inasmuch,  therefore,  as  we  have  a  great  high  priest  who 

thSK?"  has  passed  through  the  heavens,  Jesus  the  Son  of  God,  let 
Jjjf^.     us  hold  firmly  our  confession  of  faith.    For  we  have  not  a 
(4M-M)     high  priest  who  is  incapable  of  sympathizing  with  our  weak- 
nesses, but  one  who  has  been  tempted  in  all  ways  like  our- 
selves, yet  without  sinning.     So  let  us  approach  the  throne 
of  grace  with  confidence,  that  we  may  receive  mercy  and 
find  grace  to  help  us  in  the  hour  of  need. 
The  Therefore,  brothers,  since  we  have  confidence  to  enter 

swpw"    the  holy  Presence  by  virtue  of  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  the 
g*JJ      new  and  living  way  which  he  has  opened  up  for  us  by  rend- 
thus      ing  the  veil,  that  is,  of  his  earthly  nature,  and  since  we  have 
Shed     a  great  priest  over  the  house  of  God,  let  us  draw  near  with 
^°19'     a  true  heart  and  full  assurance  of  faith,  having  had  our 
hearts  sprinkled  clean  from  an  evil  conscience  and  our 
bodies  bathed  in  pure  water.    Let  us  hold  the  hope  which 
we  avow  without  wavering,  for  he  is  faithful  who  gave  us 
the  promise.    Let  us  consider  how  we  can  stir  up  one  an- 
other to  love  and  to  good  deeds. 
En-  Recall  the  former  days,  when,  after  you  were  enlightened, 

age^"     you  endured  a  hard  struggle  and  much  suffering.    This 
ESm      was  Part^y  because  you  yourselves  were  being  held  up  as 
the        objects  of  reproach  and  persecution  and  partly  because 
(wS)      you  made  a  common  cause  with  those  who  were  thus  treated ; 
for  you  not  only  sympathized  with  the  prisoners  but  you 
also   accepted   the   confiscation   of  your   own  possessions 
cheerfully,   knowing  that  you  have   for  yourselves  more 
valuable  and  lasting  possessions.    Therefore,  do  not  cast 
aside  your  confident  hope,  for  it  carries  with  it  great  reward. 
For  you  stand  in  need  of  patient  endurance,  so  that,  after 
doing  the  will  of  God,  you  may  receive  what  you  have  been 
promised. 
Exam-       Now  faith  is  the  assurance  that  we  will  receive  that  for 
ofthe    which  we  hope,  the  conviction  of  the  reality  of  those  things 
power    which  we  do  not  see.    It  was  for  this  that  the  men  of  olden 
faith      time  were  attested.    Through  faith  we  understand  that  the 
(IIW)    world  was  fashioned  by  the  word  of  God  so  that  what  is 
seen  was  made  out  of  the  invisible. 

252 


THE  POWER  OF  ABEL'S  FAITH 

By  faith  Abel  offered  God  a  more  acceptable  sacrifice  Abel 
than  Cain  and  thus  was  attested  to  be  righteous.    For  God  (4) 
gave  the  attestation  by  accepting  his  gifts  and  through  this 
faith,  though  dead,  he  still  speaks. 

By  faith  Enoch  was  taken  to  heaven,  so  that  he  did  not  Enoch 
die  and  could  not  be  found,  because  God  had  taken  him  (6,6) 
away.  For  before  he  was  taken  to  heaven  he  was  attested 
to  be  well  pleasing  to  God;  but  without  faith  it  is  impos- 
sible to  be  well  pleasing  to  him,  for  the  man  who  draws 
near  to  God  must  believe  that  he  doth  exist  and  that  he 
doth  reward  those  who  earnestly  try  to  find  him. 

By  faith  Noah,  after  having  been  taught  by  God  about  Noah 
things  still  unseen,  reverently  constructed  an  ark  to  save   (7) 
his  household;  thus  he  condemned  the  world  and  became 
heir  of  the  righteousness  that  depends  on  faith. 

By  faith,  Abraham  obeyed,  when  he  was  called  to  go  Abra- 
forth  to  a  place  which  he  would  receive  as  an  inheritance,  ^S 
and  he  went  forth  not  knowing  where  he  was  to  go.    By  1719) 
faith  he  came  and  made  his  home  in  the  promised  land  as 
in  a  foreign  country,  living  in  tents,  as  did  Isaac  and  Jacob 
who  were  co-heirs  with  him  of  the  same  promise.    For  he 
was  waiting  for  the  city  which  has  the  foundations,  whose 
builder  and  maker  is  God.    By  faith,  when  Abraham  was 
tested  he  sacrificed  Isaac  and  was  ready  to  sacrifice  his 
only  son,  although  he  had  received  the  promise  and  had 
been  told,  It  is  through  Isaac  that  your  offspring  shall  be 
reckoned ;  yet  he  considered  that  God  was  able  to  raise  men 
even  from  the  dead. 

By  faith,  Moses  was  hidden  for  three  months  after  birth  Moses 
by  his  parents,  because  they  saw  that  the  child  was  beauti-  (2329) 
ful  and  they  did  not  fear  the  royal  decree.  By  faith  Moses 
when  he  had  grown  up  refused  to  be  called  the  son  of 
Pharaoh's  daughter,  preferring  to  endure  ill-treatment  with 
God's  people  rather  than  to  have  the  passing  pleasures  of 
sin,  because  he  considered  reproaches  with  the  Messiah  to 
be  richer  wealth  than  all  the  treasures  of  Egypt;  for  he  was 
looking  for  the  reward.  By  faith  he  left  Egypt,  not  because 
he  feared  the  king's  wrath,  for  he  held  on  his  course  as  one 
who  saw  him  who  is  invisible.  By  faith  he  instituted  the 
passover  that  the  destroying  angel  might  not  touch  the  first- 

253 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

born  of  the  Israelites.    By  faith  they  crossed  the  Red  Sea, 
as  through  dry  land ;  but  when  the  Egyptians  made  the  at- 
tempt, they  were  drowned. 
Rahab       By  faith,  Rahab,  the  harlot,  did  not  perish  with  those  who 
(31)        were  disobedient  for  she  had  welcomed  the  spies  peaceably. 
other        What  more  shall  I  say  ?    For  time  would  fail  me  to  tell 
Ssroes*  °*  Gideon  and  Barak  and  Samson  and  Jephthah,  of  David 
faith6     an(*  Samuel  and  the  prophets — they  who  by  faith  conquered 
(38-34)      kingdoms,  administered  justice,   obtained  promises,  shut 
the  mouths  of  lions,  quenched  the  power  of  fire,  escaped  the 
edge   of  the   sword,   from  weakness   were   made   strong, 
proved  valiant  in  war  and  put  to  flight  foreign  armies. 
Later         Women  received  back  some  as  though  raised  from  the 
™l~      dead;  others  were  broken  on  the  wheel,  refusing  release 
fgr^      that  they  might  secure  a  better  resurrection.     Others  again 
faith      were  tested  by  scoffs  and  scourgings;  yes,  and  by  chains 
(35 'i0)      and  imprisonment.    They  were  stoned,  they  were  sawn  in 
two,  they  were  tried  by  temptation,  they  were  killed  by  the 
sword.    They  went  about  in  sheepskins  and  goatskins,  en- 
during want,  oppressed,  ill-treated  (men  of  whom  the  world 
was  not  worthy),  wanderers  in  the  desert  and  among  the 
hills,  in  caves  and  in  holes  in  the  ground.    Through  faith, 
these  all  were  attested,  but  they  did  not  obtain  the  promise. 
God  had  something  better  in  store  for  us,  so  that  apart  from 
us  they  were  not  to  attain  full  perfection. 
There-       Therefore,  surrounded  as  we  are  by  such  a  great  crowd 
brave6    of  witnesses,  let  us  lay  aside  every  handicap  and  the  sin, 
Jtand     wn*cn  clings  so  closely  to  us,  and  let  us  run  with  patient 
(i2»-8)    endurance  our  appointed  course,  fixing  our  eyes  on  Jesus, 
the  Pioneer  and  Perfecter   of  faith.      He,  for  the   sake 
of  the  joy  which  lay  before  him,  patiently  endured  the 
cross,  looking  with  contempt  upon  the  shame,  and  is  now 
seated  at  the  right  hand  of  the  throne  of  God.    Therefore 
consider  him  who  steadily  endures  all  that  hostility  from 
sinful  men,  so  as  to  keep  your  own  hearts  from  fainting 
and  failing.     In  your  struggle  against  sin  you  have  not  yet 
shed    your    blood.    Have    you    forgotten    the    comforting 
message  that  reasons  with  you  as  with  sons? 

My  son,  do  not  think  lightly  of  the  Lord's  discipline, 
And  do  not  faint  when  he  correcteth  you, 
254 


COMMAND  TO  BE  BRAVE  AND  STAND 

For  whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  disciplineth, 

And  scourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth. 

Patiently  endure  for  the  sake  of  discipline, 

God  is  dealing  with  you  as  with  sons; 

For  where  is  the  son  whom  his  father  does  not  disci- 
pline? 

And  if  you  are  left  without  that  discipline  which  all 
share, 

Then  you  are  not  sons  but  bastards. 

Moreover,  we  had  our  earthly  fathers  to  discipline  us,  There- 
and  we  yielded  to  them !    Shall  we  not  much  more  pa-  submit 
tiently  submit  to  the  Father  of  our  spirits,  and  so  live?  g>od>s 
For  while  their  discipline  was  only  for  a  time  and  accord-  di°ci-s 
ing  to  their  judgment,  he  disciplines  us  for  our  profit  that  f^f 
we  may  share  in  his  holiness.    All  discipline  seems  for  the 
present  to  be  painful  not  joyous;  but  to  those  who  are 
trained  by  it,  it  afterwards  yields  the  fruit  of  peace  and 
righteousness.    Therefore,  strengthen  your  drooping  hands 
and  weak  knees  and  make  straight  the  paths  for  your  feet, 
so  that  what  is  lame  may  not  be  dislocated  but  rather  be 
made  whole. 

i    Persistently  strive  for  peace  with  all  men  and  for  that  Avoid 
consecration  without  which  no  man  will  ever  see  the  Lord,  {™k- 
Carefully  guard  lest  anyone  misses  the  grace  of  God,  that  Riding 
no  root  of  bitterness  grow  up  to  trouble  you  and  through 
it  many  be  defiled;  also  that  there  be  no  fornicator  or  un- 
godly person  like  Esau,  who  for  a  single  meal  parted  with 
his  birthright.    For  you  know  how,  when  later  on  he  wanted 
to  secure  the  blessing,  he  was  set  aside,  for  he  found  no 
opportunity  to  repent,  though  he  sought  it  earnestly  with 
tears. 

For  you  have  not  come  to  what  you  can  touch,  to  flaming  The 
fire,  to  gloom  and  darkness  and  to  storm  and  the  blare  of  JS 
the  trumpet,  and  the  sound  of  words,  such  that  those  who  ^een 
heard  it  begged  that  no  more  should  be  added  (for  they  theSd 
could  not  bear  the  command,  If  a  beast  touches  the  moun-  newthe 
tain  it  must  be  stoned).     So  terrible  was  the  sight  that  even  cove- 
Moses   said,   I  am  terrified  and  trembling.    Rather  you  o^> 
have  come  to  Mount  Sion,  the  city  of  the  living  God,  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem,  to  myriads  of  angels,  to  the  festal 

255 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

gathering,  and  to  the  assembly  of  the  first-born  whose 
names  are  recorded  in  heaven,  to  the  spirits  of  righteous 
men  made  perfect,  to  Jesus  who  mediates  the  new  cove- 
nant, and  to  the  sprinkled  blood  which  speaks  a  nobler 
message  than  Abel's. 
There-       See  to  it  that  you  do  not  refuse  to  listen  to  him  who  is 
obedi-6   speaking  to  you,  for  if  they  who  refuse  to  listen  to  their 
J!^0    earthly  instructors  fail  to  escape,  how  much  less  shall  we 
divine    escape  if  we  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  him  who  speaketh  from 
(l^f)ter  heaven.    Then  God's  voice  shook  the  earth,  but  now  he 
promiseth,  saying,  Once  again  I  will  cause  not  only  the 
earth  but  the  heavens  to  quake.    The  phrase  'once  again* 
denotes  the  removal  of  those  things  which  can  be  shaken  as 
created  things,  in  order  that  those  things  only  which  cannot 
be  shaken  may  remain.    Therefore,  let  us  render  thanks 
that  we  are  receiving  a  kingdom  that  cannot  be  shaken, 
and  in  this  way  let  us  worship  God  acceptably  with  godly 
reverence  and  awe,  for  our  God  is  indeed  a  consuming  fire. 
Jesus.        Jesus  Christ  is  the  same  yesterday,  to-day  and  forever. 
spirit-    Do  not  let  yourselves  be  drawn  aside  by  all  sorts  of  strange 
wlr?d  teachings,  for  it  is  well  to  have  one's  heart  strengthened 
lasting   by  God's  grace  and  not  by  special  kinds  of  food  which  have 
Staf1"     never  been  of  any  use  to  those  who  scrupulously  attend  to 
(i3«-«)    them.    We  have  an  altar  from  which  the  worshippers  at 
the  Jewish  tabernacle  have  no  right  to  eat.    For  the  bodies 
of  those  animals  whose  blood  is  taken  by  the  high  priest 
into  the  holy  place  as  a  sin  offering  are  burned  outside  the 
camp.    And  for  this  reason  Jesus  also  suffered  outside  the 
gate  in  order  to  sanctify  the  people  by  his  blood.    There- 
fore, let  us  go  to  him  outside  the  camp,  sharing  his  reproach, 
for  we  have  no  lasting  city  here  below,  but  we  seek  for  the 
city  to  come.    Through  him,  then,  let  us  constantly  offer 
to  God  our  sacrifice  of  praise,  namely,  the  fruit  of  lips  which 
make  confession  in  his  name. 
Bene-        Now  may  the  God  of  peace,  who  brought  up  from  the  dead 
ffil™  our  Lord  Jesus,  who  by  the  blood  of  the  eternal  covenant 
is  the  great  Shepherd  of  the  sheep,  fully  equip  you  with 
every  good  thing  that  you  may  do  his  will,  creating  in  us, 
through  Christ  Jesus,  what  is  acceptable  in  his  sight.    To 
him  be  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen. 

256 


THE  LITERARY  FORM  OF  HEBREWS 

I.     The  Literary  Form  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.     In  its 

literary  form  and  thought  the  so-called  "Epistle  to  the  Hebrews" 
stands  in  solitary  grandeur  among  New  Testament  writings.  Its 
only  kinsmen  are  the  speeches  of  Peter,  Stephen,  and  Paul  reported 
in  Acts.  It  was  evidently  written  by  a  Greek  Christian.  Its  involved, 
often  redundant  sentences  reveal  the  student  rather  than  the  man 
trained  in  the  active  stream  of  life.  Its  traditional  title  and  the 
personal  notes  in  the  last  chapter  give  it  the  semblance  of  an  epistle; 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  originally  addressed  by  word 
of  mouth  to  a  definite  assembly  of  Christians,  for  it  has  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  sermon.  It  is  faultlessly  constructed  as  an  oration 
according  to  the  canons  of  the  Greek  rhetoricians.  The  impressive 
introduction  is  found  in  lr-413.  The  formal  argument,  which  develops 
the  thought  that  Jesus  is  our  great  high  priest  who  enables  us  to  enter 
the  divine  presence  with  confidence,  is  presented  in  413-1031.  The 
ideas  are  here  prevailingly  expressed  in  the  first  person.  The  short 
passage,  1032"39,  marks  the  sharp  transition  to  the  direct  personal  ap- 
plication. The  pronoun  "you"  henceforth  takes  the  place  of  "we." 
The  examples  of  the  men  of  faith  who  have  endured  sufferings  are 
massed  impressively  and  dramatically  in  chapter  11.  The  general- 
izations, the  logical  conclusions,  and  the  practical  exhortations  follow 
in  121"29  and  138"15.  The  elaborate  benediction,  which  furnishes  the 
appropriate  conclusion  to  this  noble  sermon,  is  found  in  1320, 21.  The 
indications  that  the  contents  of  this  epistle  were  first  presented  to  an 
audience  within  the  physical  as  well  as  the  mental  vision  of  the  preacher 
are  many.  In  511,  for  example,  when  he  began  to  develop  the  intricate 
allegory  of  "the  high  priest  with  the  rank  of  Melchizedek,"  some  of 
his  audience  may  well  have  yawned.  With  the  intuitions  of  the  true 
preacher  he  felt  that  their  interests  were  suddenly  relaxed,  for  he  adds: 
"On  this  point  I  have  a  great  deal  to  say  which  it  is  hard  to  make 
clear  to  you,  for  you  have  grown  dull  of  hearing."  Indeed,  there  is  a 
trace  of  impatience  in  his  words:  "You  still  need  someone  to  teach  you 
once  more  the  elementary  principles  of  the  divine  revelation.  You 
are  in  need  of  milk  not  of  solid  food!"  But  in  the  next  paragraph  he 
recovers  his  buoyant  optimism  and  probably  also  the  attention  of  his 
audience:  "Let  us  go  on  then  to  what  is  mature,  leaving  elementary 
Christian  doctrine  behind."  In  ll32  he  exclaims:  "Time  would  fail 
me  to  tell  of  Gideon"  and  the  other  heroes  of  the  faith.  It  is  the 
preacher,  not  the  writer,  who  feels  the  imperative  limitations  of  time. 
The  bonds  of  sympathy  and  interest  between  the  speaker  and  his 

257 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

audience  were  evidently  very  close.  He  constantly  addresses  them 
as  "beloved"  or  as  "brothers."  In  1032"34  he  asks  them  to  "recall  the 
former  days  when,  after  you  were  enlightened,  you  endured  a  hard 
struggle  and  much  suffering."  He  goes  on  to  speak  of  the  reproaches 
which  they  endured,  of  their  sympathy  for  those  who  were  in  prison, 
and  of  the  cheerfulness  with  which  they  bore  the  confiscation  of  their 
possessions.  Here  we  listen  to  a  pastor  praising  and  exhorting  mem- 
bers of  the  flock  which  he  has  led  through  much  tribulation  and  which 
is  again  facing  persecution.  As  several  scholars  have  observed,  the 
personal  notes  in  131"7, 16~19,  22"24,  destroy  the  otherwise  close-knit  unity 
of  the  book  (cf.  Torrey,  Journal  of  Bib.  Lit.,  XXX,  137-156).  The 
interest,  the  vocabulary,  and  the  literary  style  are  fundamentally 
different  from  those  which  characterize  the  rest  of  the  sermon.  It  is 
exceedingly  probable  that  the  notes  were  later  added  to  this  address 
in  order  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  an  epistle  and  to  imply  that  it 
came  from  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  The  reference  to  brother 
Timothy  and  the  salutation  from  the  Italians  support  the  inference 
without  definitely  stating  that  what  preceded  was  written  by  Paul 
from  Rome. 

II.  The  Authorship  and  History  of  Hebrews.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  implication  of  the  personal  notes  in  chapter  13,  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  Hebrews  was  early  questioned,  even  by  the  church  at 
Rome.  That  he  is  not  its  author  is  now  almost  universally  recognized. 
While  Hebrews  has  many  points  of  contact  with  Paul's  epistles,  its 
thought  moves  on  an  entirely  different  level.  Its  author  was  a  theo- 
logian, a  finished  orator,  and  a  master  of  the  Greek  idiom.  He  was 
acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Philo  and  the  Alexandrian  type  of 
thought.  The  early  conflict  between  Jew  and  Gentile  had  completely 
disappeared  from  his  horizon.  All  the  institutions  and  events  of 
Old  Testament  history  were  to  him  but  prophetic  types  of  heavenly 
and  future  realities.  He  adopted  without  question  the  apostolic 
teaching  that  the  Christians  were  the  seed  of  Abraham  (216)  and  the 
true  people  of  God  (49).  He  quotes  at  length  from  the  Greek  version 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  his  quotations  are  very  exact,  but  he  fol- 
lows guilelessly  the  mistakes  of  the  Greek  translators.  Like  most  of 
the  apostles,  he  regards  the  Old  Testament  primarily  as  a  collection 
of  predictions  regarding  Jesus  and  the  triumphant  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity. As  has  been  truly  said,  the  author  is  "a  man  of  deep  sincer- 
ity and  great  richness  of  soul."  His  interest  in  Christ,  however,  is 
more  intellectual  and  not  so  personal  as  Paul's.     For  him  Christ  is 

258 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  HISTORY 

the  great  high  priest  who  has  made  it  possible  for  his  followers  to  at- 
tain forgiveness  of  their  sins  and  direct  access  to  God.  And  yet  the 
author  of  Hebrews  has  an  intensely  practical  rather  than  a  merely 
theological  interest.  He  was  endeavoring  to  inspire  and  help  his 
fellow  Christians  who  were  facing  bitter  persecution.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  famous  eleventh  chapter  he  apparently  has  in  mind  the 
persecutions  of  Nero  in  64,  as  well  as  the  earlier  attempt  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  to  wipe  out  Judaism.  When  he  spoke,  these  events  lay  in 
the  distant  past.  The  persecutions  which  he  immediately  faced  were 
probably  those  under  Domitian.  A  date  about  85  a.d.  also  satisfies 
in  every  respect  the  literary  relationships  of  Hebrews.  Its  use  by 
Clement  of  Rome  about  100  fixes  its  origin  in  the  first  century.  Alex- 
andria at  this  time  undoubtedly  had  a  large  Christian  community  and 
this  strongly  Grseco-Roman  city  furnishes  the  most  natural  background 
for  the  original  sermon  contained  in  Hebrews.  Either  by  chance  or 
definite  intention  it  was  carried  in  time  to  Rome.  Its  high  intellectual 
and  spiritual  values  undoubtedly  from  the  first  gave  it  an  accepted 
position  in  the  rapidly  growing  collection  of  early  Christian  writings. 
When  later  in  the  second  Christian  century  the  New  Testament  canon 
was  beginning  to  be  definitely  fixed,  Hebrews  lacked  but  one  thing 
and  that  was  the  apostolic  (Pauline)  authority  which,  by  implication, 
the  personal  notes  in  13  supply.  It  is  probable  that  by  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  Hebrews  was  current  in  its  present  form  and  had 
won  its  place  side  by  side  with  the  other  New  Testament  epistles. 

III.  The  Aim  of  the  Sermon  in  Hebrews.  Pliny's  famous 
letter  to  Hadrian  makes  clear  the  peril  which  the  author  of  Hebrews 
was  seeking^to  avert.  The  Roman  governor  tells  of  many  who  were 
or  had  been  Christians,  who  at  his  dictation  prayed  to  the  gods  and 
made  supplication  with  incense  and  wine  to  the  emperor's  statue, 
which  Pliny  had  ordered  to  be  brought  into  the  court  for  this  pur- 
pose. He  also  says:  "In  addition  to  this  they  cursed  Christ,  none  of 
which  things,  it  is  said,  those  who  are  really  Christians  can  be  made  to 
do."  In  611,  n  the  author  of  Hebrews  states  his  aim:  "It  is  my  earnest 
desire  that  each  of  you  should  show  his  zeal  to  realize  your  full  hope 
to  the  very  end,  so  that  instead  of  being  slack  you  may  imitate  those 
who  inherit  the  promises  by  their  unswerving  faith."  His  purpose 
is  to  strengthen  the  faith  of  the  Christians  so  that  they  will  hold  fast 
to  it  amidst  the  trying  temptations  and  persecutions  that  impend.  All 
of  his  thought  and  teaching  are  focused  on  this  definite  end.  In 
this  respect  the  epistle  of  I  Peter  and  Hebrews  are  in  close  accord. 

259 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

They  are  probably  the  outgrowth  of  the  same  great  struggle.  In 
preserving  the  faith  of  Christendom  during  this  severe  ordeal  they 
each  performed  an  inestimable  service. 

IV.  The  Theme  and  the  Development  of  the  Thought  of 
Hebrews.  The  text  from  which  the  sermon  in  Hebrews  was  preached 
was  apparently  taken  from  Jeremiah  3131.  It  is  quoted  not  at  the 
beginning  but  in  the  heart  of  the  sermon  (810) : 

This  is  the  covenant  I  will  make  with  the  house  of  Israel; 

I  will  set  my  laws  within  their  mind, 

And  I  will  inscribe  them  upon  their  hearts, 

I  will  be  a  God  to  them, 

And  they  shall  be  a  people  to  me. 

The  author's  thesis  is  that  Christ,  superior  to  all  other  agents  sent 
by  God  to  man,  is  the  culmination  of  all  preceding  revelation  and  the 
one  who  has  established  the  new  and  everlasting  covenant  between 
God  and  the  individual.  In  122  he  describes  Jesus  as  the  Pioneer 
and  Perfecter  of  our  faith.  The  foundations  of  this  sermon  are  the 
primitive  Christian  beliefs  and  the  teachings  of  Paul.  To  these  are 
added  the  distinctive  contributions  of  the  Alexandrian  type  of  thought. 
While  there  are  few  traces  of  rabbinical  influence,  there  are  many 
points  of  contact  with  the  noble  homily  in  IV  Maccabees  which  at 
about  the  same  period  was  either  preached  as  a  sermon  or  sent  out  as 
a  general  epistle.  Possibly  both  emanate  from  Alexandria.  Both 
accept  the  belief  in  atonement  for  sin.  This  doctrine  was  in  fact  a 
fixed  tenet  of  contemporary  Judaism.  In  both  of  these  homilies  faith 
is  conceived  of,  not  in  the  Pauline  sense  of  mystical  fellowship  with  God, 
but  as  a  belief  in  the  providential  rulership  of  the  world  (cf.  IV  Mac. 
1524,  1622).  Both  also  illustrate  their  teachings  by  the  example  of  the 
Old  Testament  heroes. 

To  a  modern  reader  the  first,  the  doctrinal  part  of  the  sermon  in 
Hebrews,  is  the  least  convincing.  The  picture  of  the  exalted  Christ 
in  the  opening  paragraphs  undoubtedly  represents  the  beliefs  of  a 
majority  of  the  Christian  church  at  the  close  of  the  first  century. 
Already  the  roots  of  this  doctrine  have  been  traced  through  Paul  and 
the  early  apostles  back  to  the  Jewish  apocalypses.  The  author  of 
Hebrews  has  evidently  arrived  at  the  same  beliefs  by  a  different  way. 
Following  the  Alexandrian  teachers  and  especially  Philo,  who  inter- 
preted the  entire  Old  Testament  allegorically,  he  drew  chiefly  from  the 
Psalms  the  proofs  of  Jesus'  divine  nature.    The  present  age  is  par- 

260 


THEME  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THOUGHT 

ticularly  impatient  with  the  use  of  proof  texts,  especially  when  they  are 
torn  from  their  context  and  given  an  interpretation  entirely  foreign  to 
that  in  the  mind  of  the  original  writer.  Thus,  for  example,  in  11(M2 
he  quotes  from  Psalm  10226"27,  which  was  clearly  addressed  to  Jehovah, 
for  the  original  psalm  begins  in  B: 

Thou,  Jehovah,  art  enthroned  forever, 
And  thy  fame  is  to  all  generations. 

As  uniformly  in  the  Greek  text  (which  the  author  of  Hebrews  fol- 
lowed) "Jehovah"  was  translated  "Lord."  This  fact  alone  explains 
his  interpretation  of  the  psalm  as  a  description  of  Christ's  character 
and  creative  work.  The  passage  is  significant  because  it  throws  clear 
light  on  one  of  the  ways  in  which  the  creed  of  the  later  church  de- 
veloped. It  also  explains  why  there  is  such  a  vast  difference  between  7 
the  simple,  vivid  picture  of  Jesus  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels  and  the 
elaborate  Christology  of  these  later  writers.  Throughout  the  opening 
chapters  of  Hebrews  the  logic  is  largely  that  of  the  Alexandrian  al- 
legorical school,  which  was  inclined  to  find  a  symbolic  meaning  in 
every  Old  Testament  phrase  and  figure.  Even  though  the  author  of 
Hebrews  feared  that  his  audience  might  fall  asleep  in  the  process,  he 
developed  at  length  his  allegory  regarding  Melchizedek,  the  king  of 
Salem,  finding  in  the  meaning  of  each  of  these  titles  symbolic  sugges- 
tions of  the  character  and  work  of  the  future  Messiah.  To  his  hearers, 
however,  this  allegorical  method  of  interpretation  was  undoubtedly 
as  convincing  as  that  of  the  modern  biblical  interpreter  is  to  the 
present  generation.  In  estimating  the  permanent  value  of  Hebrews, 
it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  author's  aim  was  not  doctrinal 
but  practical.  In  describing  the  character  and  work  of  Jesus  he  used 
the  terms  and  figures  which  were  most  intelligible  and  impressive  to 
his  hearers.  The  conclusion  of  his  doctrinal  introduction  is  found  in 
1019'31.  Its  great  central  teaching  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
teaching  of  Paul  and  the  gospel  narratives,  and  is  as  true  as  it  is  sig- 
nificant: Jesus  by  his  work  has  rendered  unnecessary  all  the  compli- 
cated rites  which  were  associated  with  the  ancient  covenant  and  has 
made  it  possible  for  each  individual  to  enter  into  personal,  intimate 
fellowship  with  God  himself.  The  thought  in  the  remainder  of  the 
sermon  moves  on  a  high  intellectual  and  spiritual  plane.  The  au- 
thor's noble  array  of  the  heroes  of  the  faith  has  been  the  inspiration 
of  millions  of  tried  and  tempted  souls  through  the  ages.  With  the 
true  instincts  of  the  preacher  he  has  included  women  as  well  as  men  in 

261 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SERMON  IN  HEBREWS 

this  list.  Even  Rahab,  the  harlot,  rises  to  bear  testimony  to  the 
power  of  faith  to  transform  a  wasted,  impure  life.  Faith,  as  thus 
concretely  defined,  is  not  only  intellectual  belief  but  trust  and  loyalty 
expressed  in  life  and  acts.  Thus  it  is  that  our  author  supplements 
Paul's  mystical,  though  more  spiritual  conception  of  faith,  and  imparts 
to  it  a  practical,  kinetic  quality. 

V.  The  Charm  and  Power  of  Hebrews.  Undoubtedly  the 
sermon  in  Hebrews  brought  conviction  and  inspiration  to  the  perse- 
cuted Christians  who  first  heard  it.  It  has  also  contributed  much  to 
the  beliefs  of  the  Christian  church.  It  is  to-day  one  of  the  ten  or 
twelve  great  books  of  the  New  Testament.  Its  charm  lies  not  merely 
in  its  majestic  rolling  sentences.  Its  power  is  certainly  not  dependent 
upon  its  logic.  Unlike  many  of  Paul's  epistles,  its  appeal  is  not  pri- 
marily to  the  emotions.  Its  charm  and  power  lie  rather  in  its  dauntless, 
courageous  spirit  and  in  the  marvellously  effective  way  in  which  the 
author  has  rallied  the  forces  which  engender  faith  and  steadfast  en- 
durance in  the  presence  of  temptation  and  trial.  It  is  interesting  to 
analyze  these  forces.  The  first  is  Christ's  triumphant  exaltation 
and  his  superiority  to  angels  and  men.  The  second  is  his  sympathy 
with  our  trials  and  temptations,  for  he  himself  has  shared  them.  The 
third  is  his  supreme  achievement  in  having  made  access  to  and  fellow- 
ship with  God  possible  and  easy  for  every  individual,  however  bur- 
dened with  sins.  The  fourth  is  that  he  has  swept  away  the  cumber- 
some forms  of  the  old  covenant  and  established  a  new  and  simpler 
relation  between  God  and  man.  The  fifth  is  that  the  Christian,  if 
he  proves  faithless,  will  forfeit  thereby  all  hope  for  the  future.  The 
sixth  is  that  past  experience  has  shown  that  Christ's  followers  have  the 
power  to  endure  even  the  most  terrible  trials  and  persecutions.  The 
seventh  is  the  inspiring  example  of  the  long  list  of  heroes  who,  through 
faith,  have  achieved.  The  eighth  is  the  supreme  example  of  Jesus 
himself.  Thus  the  ultimate  charm  and  power  of  Hebrews  lie  not  in 
its  theology  nor  its  rhetoric  but  in  its  ability  to  inspire  heroic,  self- 
sacrificing  faith  in  God  and  undying  loyalty  to  the  principles  of  Jesus. 

§CLXVH.     THE   VISIONS    OF   THE   ULTIMATE   VICTORY    OF 
The  CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  BOOK   OF  REVELATION 

pSe  A  revelation  by  Jesus  Christ,  which  God  granted  him 

?Iv£fi-  *^at  he  n^ght  make  known  to  his  servants  what  must 
tion  quickly  come  to  pass.  He  disclosed  it  by  sending  it  through 
iSa)v'    his  angel,  to  his  servant  John,  who  bore  witness  as  to  what  is 

262 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  REVELATION 

the  Word  of  God  and  the  testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  even 
to  what  he  saw.  Blessed  is  he  who  reads  and  blessed  are 
they  who  hear  the  words  of  this  prophecy  and  lay  to  heart 
the  things  which  are  written  in  it,  for  the  time  is  near. 

John  to  the  seven  churches  in  the  province  of  Asia.     May  Greet- 
grace  be  granted  to  you  and  peace  from  him  who  is  and  ^K„j 
was  and  is  forevermore,  and  from  the  seven  spirits  before 
his  throne  and  from  Jesus  Christ  who  is  the  faithful  wit- 
ness, the  first-born  from  the  dead  and  the  ruler  of  the  kings 
of  the  earth. 

To  him  who  loves  us  and  who  has  freed  us  from  our  sins  Ascrip- 
by  his  own  blood  and  made  us  a  Kingdom,  to  be  priests  to  pSsef 
his  God  and  Father,  to  him  be  glory  and  power  for  ever  and  t^hTist 
ever.     Amen.    Lo,  he  is  coming  on  the  clouds  and  every  (*>-») 
eye  will  see  him,  even  those  who  pierced  him,  and  the  tribes 
of  earth  will  mourn  over  him.     Even  so.  Amen.    I  am  the 
Alpha  and  the  Omega,  saith  the  Lord  God,  he  who  is  and 
was  and  is  forevermore  the  Almighty. 

On  the  Lord's  day  I  was  in  the  Spirit,  and  I  heard  a  loud  The 
voice  behind  me  like  a  trumpet  calling,  Write  what  you  see  JJSd 
in  a  book  and  send  it  to  the  seven  churches.  t*>^ 

To  the  angel  at  the  church  at  Ephesus  write :  I  know  your   p?  »*) 
deeds,  your  toil  and  your  patient  endurance.   'And  I  know  The 
that  you  cannot  tolerate  wicked  men  and  that  you  have  J^Jf^ 
tested  those  who  called  themselves  apostles  but  are  not  Ephe- 
and  have  found  them  to  be  liars.     And  I  know  that  you  are   (2SL. 
enduring  patiently  and  have  borne  up  for  my  sake  and  7) 
have  not  grown  weary.     Yet  I  have  this  against  you:  you 
have  given  up  your  first  love.    Let  anyone  who  has  ears 
listen  to  what  the  Spirit  says  to  the  churches:  To  him  who 
overcomes  I  will  grant  to  eat  from  the  tree  of  life  which  is 
in  the  paradise  of  God.' 

To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Smyrna  write:  These  are  To  the 
the  words  of  the  First  and  Last,  he  who  is  dead  and  has  ^'arch 
returned  to  life:  'I  know  your  distress  and  poverty  (but  smyr- 
you  are  rich!).    I  know  how  you  are  being  slandered  by  («*i> 
those  who  call  themselves  Jews  and  are  not,  but  are  a  mere 
synagogue  of  Satan.    Do  not  fear  what  you  are  about  to 
suffer.    The  devil,  indeed  is  going  to  throw  some  of  you  into 
prison,  that  you  may  be  tested,  and  for  ten  days  you  will 

263 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

have  to  endure  distress.    Be  faithful  even  to  death  and  I 
will  give  you  the  crown  of  life.    Let  anyone  who  has  ears 
listen  to  what  the  Spirit  says  to  the  churches:  He  who 
overcomes  shall  not  be  injured  by  the  second  death.' 
To  the       To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Pergamum  write:  These 
at  pS   are  the  words  of  him  who  has  the  sharp,  two-edged  sword : 
g^  1 1  know  where  you  dwell.     Satan's  throne  is  there ;  and 
yet  you  are  loyal  to  my  name  and  have  not  renounced 
your  faith  in  me,  even  in  the  days  of  Antipas,  my  witness 
and  faithful  servant,  who  was  put  to  death  among  you  in 
the  place  where  Satan  dwells.' 
To  the       To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Thyatira  write:  These  are 
a^Thy-  the  words  of  the  Son  of  God  who  has  eyes  like  a  flame  of 
(S?»      ^re  an<*  whose  feet  are  like  burnished  brass :  *  I  know  your 
») '        deeds,  your  love,  your  faith,  your  service,  and  your  patient 
endurance.    I  know  that  of  late  you  are  doing  more  than 
you  did  at  first.    Only  hold  fast  to  what  you  have  until  I 
come.' 
to  the       To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Sardis  write :  These  are  the 
^arch   words  of  him  who  holds  the  seven  spirits  of  God  and  the 
S|fdis    seven  stars :  *  I  know  your  deeds ;  you  have  the  name  of 
being  alive  but  are  dead.    Be  watchful,  rally  what  is  still 
left,  though  it  is  about  to  perish;  for  I  have  found  none  of 
your    deeds    complete    in    the    eyes    of    God.    Now,   re- 
member, those  teachings  which  you  have  received  and 
heard,  hold  to  them  and  repent.    If  you  will  not  be  watch- 
ful, I  will  come  like  a  thief  and  you  will  not  know  at  what 
hour  I  will  come  upon  you.     Still  you  have  a  few  names  in 
Sardis  of  those  who  have  not  soiled  their  garments.    They 
will  walk  beside  me  in  white,  for  they  are  worthy.' 
To  the       To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Philadelphia  write:  These 
at  Phil-  are  the  words  of  the  faithful  and  Holy  One  who  has  the  key 
agj*-      of  David,  who  opens  and  none  shall  shut  and  shuts  and  none 
(7. £ io)    shall  open:  '  I  know  your  deeds.     See,  I  have  set  an  open 
door  before  you  which  no  one  is  able  to  shut,  for  though 
you  have  little  strength,  you  have  kept  my  word,  you  have 
not  renounced  my  name.    Because  you  have  kept  my  word 
through  your  patient  endurance,  I  will  keep  you  safe  from 
the  hour  of  trial  which  is  coming  upon  the  whole  world  to 
test  the  dwellers  on  earth.' 

264 


LETTER  TO  THE  CHURCH  AT  LAODICEA 

To  the  angel  of  the  church  at  Laodicea  write :  These  are  To  the 
the  words  of  the  Amen,  the  faithful  and  true  witness,  the  at  La£ 
beginning  of  God's  creation :  *  I  know  your  deeds ;  you  are  <ho» 
neither  cold  nor  hot — would  that  you  were  either  cold  or  »-">' 
hot!    So  because  you  are  luke-warm,  neither  hot  nor  cold, 
I  am  going  to  spit  you  out  of  my  mouth.    I  reprove  and 
discipline  those  whom  I  love;  therefore  be  in  earnest  and 
repent.    Lo,  I  stand  at  the  door  and  knock.    If  anyone 
listens  to  my  voice  and  opens  the  door,  I  will  come  in  to 
him  and  sup  with  him  and  he  with  me.    To  him  who  over- 
comes I  will  grant  to  sit  beside  me  on  my  throne,  as  I  myself 
have  overcome  and  sat  down  with  my  Father  on  his  throne. 
Let  anyone  who  has  ears  listen  to  what  the  Spirit  says  to 
the  churches.' 

After  this  I  looked,  and  there  was  a  door  standing  open  The 
in  heaven.    And  the  first  voice  which  I  had  heard  talking  JfGod 
with  me  like  a  trumpet  said,  Come  up  here,  and  I  will  show  s^gg 
you  what  must  come  to  pass  after  these  things.    Immedi-  heav- 
ately  I  found  myself  in  the  Spirit,  and  lo,  a  throne  stood  in  ^ne 
heaven  and  One  sitting  on  the  throne  who  resembled  in  (41" 
appearance  jasper  and  sardius.    And  around  the  throne 
there  was  a  rainbow,  resembling  emeralds  in  appearance, 
and  also  around  the  throne  were  twenty-four  other  thrones 
and  on  these  thrones  were  seated  twenty-four  elders,  clad 
in  white  robes  with  golden  crowns  upon  their  heads.    From 
the  throne  there  come  flashes  of  lightning  and  peals  of 
thunder,  while  in  front  of  the  throne  seven  blazing  torches 
are  burning,  which  are  the  seven  spirits  of  God.    And  in 
front  of  the  throne  there  appears  to  be  a  sea  of  glass,  re- 
sembling crystal,  and  on  each  side  of  the  throne  all  around 
it  are  four  living  creatures,  full  of  eyes  before  and  behind. 
And  day  and  night  they  never  cease  saying, 

Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  God  Almighty, 
Who  was  and  is  and  ever  more  shall  be. 

The 

Then  in  the  midst  of  the  throne  and  before  the  living  £!der 

creatures  I  saw  a  Lamb  standing  among  the  elders.    And  f^e 

I  looked  and  heard  the  voice  of  many  angels  round  the  ^amb 

throne  and  the  living  creatures  and  the  elders,  numbering  V 

265 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

myriads  of  myriads  and  thousands  of  thousands,  crying 
aloud,  Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  has  been  slain  to  receive 
power  and  wealth  and  wisdom  and  might  and  honor  and 
glory  and  blessing.  And  I  heard  every  creature  in  heaven 
and  on  earth  and  under  the  earth  and  on  the  sea  and  all 
things  that  are  in  them,  crying,  To  him  who  is  seated  on 
the  throne  and  to  the  Lamb  be  blessing  and  honor  and 
glory  and  dominion  for  ever  and  ever.  And  the  four  living 
creatures  said,  Amen.  And  the  elders  fell  down  and  wor- 
shipped. 
The  After  that  I  looked,  and  there  was  a  vast  host  which  no 

fJde"     one  could  count,  from  every  nation  and  tribe  and  people  and 
and       tongue,  standing  before  the  throne  and  before  the  Lamb, 
nessSe  "  clad  in  white  robes,  with  palm  branches  in  their  hands. 
trium-    And  tnev  cried  aloud,  saying,  It  is  to  our  God  who  is  seated 
phant     on  the  throne  and  to  the  Lamb  that  we  owe  our  salvation ! 
(7»nio.    Then  one  of  the  elders  addressed  me,  saying,  Who  are 
13.14.17)    tnese  ciacj  ^  white  robes,  whence  have  they  come?    I  said 
to  him,  You  know,  my  Lord.     So  he  told  me,  These  are  the 
people  who  have  come  out  of  the  great  distress  and  washed 
their  robes  and  made  them  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb. 
For  this  reason  they  are  now  before  the  throne  of  God  and 
serve  him  day  and  night  within  his  temple. 

He  who  is  sitting  on  the  throne  will  shelter  them  in 

his  tent; 
Never  again  will  they  be  hungry  or  thirsty, 
Never  again  will  the  sun  or  any  scorching  heat  smite 

them; 
For  the  Lamb  in  the  midst  of  the  throne  will  be  their 

shepherd, 
And  will  guide  them  to  fountains  of  living  water; 
And  God  will  wipe  away  every  tear  from  their  eyes. 

The 

Baty-f  Then  I  saw  another  angel  flying  in  mid-heaven,  with  an 
ofthSl  eterna*  g°sPel  t(>  proclaim  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 
who°se  to  every  nation,  tribe,  language  and  people.  He  cried 
S2pped  aloud,  Fear  God,  give  him  glory,  for  the  hour  of  his  judgment 
beLt  *s  come#  Worship  him  who  made  heaven  and  earth,  the 
(fjfij)    sea  and  the  fountains  of  water.    And  another,  a  second 

266 


THE  FATE  OF  BABYLON 

angel  followed,  crying,  Fallen,  fallen  is  Babylon,  the  great. 
She  who  made  all  nations  drink  the  wine  of  wrath  pro- 
voked by  her  vice  !  And  then  another,  a  third  angel  fol- 
lowed these,  crying  aloud,  Whoever  worships  the  Beast  and 
his  image  or  receives  a  mark  on  his  forehead  or  on  his  hand 
shall  drink  the  wine  of  God's  wrath  which  stands  ready  un- 
mixed in  the  cup  of  his  fury  and  shall  be  tortured  with  fire 
and  brimstone  before  the  holy  angels  and  the  Lamb.  And 
the  smoke  of  their  torture  goes  up  for  ever  and  ever,  and 
they  get  no  rest  from  it  day  and  night — the  worshippers  of 
the  Beast  and  his  statue  and  all  who  receive  the  mark  of 
his  name.  This  is  what  reveals  the  patient  endurance  of  the 
saints  who  keep  God's  commands  and  the  faith  of  Jesus ! 

Then  I  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  saying,  Write  this:  The 
Blessed  are  the  dead  who  die  in  the  Lord  from  henceforth !  J^S? 
Even  so,  says  the  Spirit;  let  them  rest  from  their  labors;  faithful 
for  what  they  have  done  goes  with  them. 

Then  I  saw  heaven  open  wide  and  there  was  a  white  The 
horse.    Its  rider  was  named  Faithful  and  True,  and  he  Jeemer 
righteously  judges  and  makes  war.    His  eyes  are  a  flame  £§JgM) 
of  fire  and  on  his  head  are  many  diadems.    He  has  a  name 
inscribed  upon  him,  known  to  no  one  but  himself.    He  is 
clad  in  a  robe  dipped  in  blood,  and  his  name  is  the  Word  of 
God.    The  armies  of  heaven  follow  him  on  white  horses, 
clothed  in  fine  linen,  white  and  spotless.    From  his  mouth 
proceeds  a  sharp  sword  wherewith  to  smite  the  nations, 
and  he  will  shepherd  them  with  a  rod  of  iron  and  tread  the 
wine-press  with  the  fierce  anger  of  God  Almighty.     On  his 
robe  and  on  his  thigh  his  name  is  written: 

KING  OF  KINGS  AND  LORD   OF  LORDS 

And  I  saw  the  Beast  and  the  kings  of  earth  and  their  The 
armies  assembled  to  make  war  on  him  who  was  seated  on  g^. 
a  horse  and  against  his  army.    But  the  Beast  was  seized,  tjom^ 
together  with  the  false  prophet  who  had  done  signs  before  human 
him  by  means  of  which  he  seduced  those  who  received  the  ^J, 
mark  of  the  Beast  and  worshipped  his  statue.    Both  of  (19m) 
them  were  cast  alive  into  the  lake  of  fire  that  burns  with 
brimstone,  and  the  rest  were  killed  by  the  sword  which 

267 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

came  forth  from  the  mouth  of  him  who  was  seated  on  the 

horse. 

Final         Then  I  saw  a  great  white  throne  and  One  was  seated  on 

rSon  ft  fr°m  whose  presence  earth  and  sky  fled  away  and  no 

and       place  was  found  for  them;  and  I  saw  the  dead,  great  and 

Sent     small,  standing  before  the  throne.    And  the  books  were 

(20"-i5)  0pen — ajgo  mother  book,  the  book  of  life,  was  open.    And 

the  dead  were  judged  by  what  was  written  in  these  books 

according  to  their  deeds.    And  the  sea  also  gave  up  its 

corpses  and  Death  and  Hades  gave  up  their  dead;  and  all 

were  judged  according  to  their  deeds.    Then  Death  and 

Hades  were  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (this  is  the  second 

death — the  lake  of  fire).    And  everyone  who  was  not  found 

enrolled  in  the  book  of  life  was  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire. 

Gods        Then  I  saw  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth,  for  the  first 

doJm g  heaven  and  the  first  earth  had  passed  away  and  the  sea 

to         is  no  more.    And  I  saw  the  Holy  City,  the  New  Jerusalem, 

anSng    coming  down  from  God  out  of  heaven,  all  ready  like  a  bride 

gf?.,)  i  arrayed  for  her  husband,  and  I  heard  a  loud  voice  out  of 

the  throne  saying, 

Behold  God's  dwelling  place  is  with  men, 

And  he  will  dwell  among  them, 

And  they  shall  be  his  people. 

Yea,  God  himself  will  be  among  them, 

And  he  will  wipe  away  every  tear  from  their  eyes, 

And  death  shall  be  no  more; 

No  sorrow  nor  wailing  nor  pain, 

For  the  first  things  have  passed  away. 

And  he  who  was  seated  on  the  throne  said, 

Behold,  I  am  making  all  things  new  ! 

And  he  added,  Write  this: 

These  words  are  faithful  and  true. 

The  I  saw  no  temple  in  the  city, 

gJJe  For  its  temple  is  the  Lord  Almighty  and  the  Lamb. 

ence  The  city  has  no  need  of  the  sun, 

Se  Nor  of  the  moon  to  give  it  light, 

$&>  For  the  glory  of  God  illumines  it, 

And  the  lamp  thereof  is  the  Lamb. 
268 


THE  DIVINE  PRESENCE 

By  its  light  will  the  nations  walk, 
And  into  it  will  the  kings  of  earth  bring  their  glory. 
Its  gates  will  never  be  shut  by  day, 
For  there  will  be  no  night  there. 
They  will  bring  into  it  the  glory  and  honor  of  nations, 
But  nothing  unclean  shall  ever  enter  it, 
Nor  any  one  who  practises  abomination  or  falsehood, 
Only  those  whose  names  are  written  in  the  Lamb's 
book  of  life. 

Then  he  showed  me  the  river  of  the  water  of  life,  bright  The^ 
as  crystal,  flowing  through  the  streets  of  the  city  from  the  SSf 
throne  of  God  and  of  the  Lamb.     On  both  sides  of  the  river  Jgg5  of 
grew  the  tree  of  life,  bearing  twelve  kinds  of  fruit,  each  (2211) 
month  yielding  its  own  fruit.    And  the  leaves  of  the  tree 
serve  to  heal  the  nations. 

None  who  was  accursed  will  remain  there;  The 

But  the  throne  of  God  and  of  the  Lamb  will  be  in  it,  gf0S?> 
And  his  servants  will  render  him  holy  service,  Jg3 

And  they  will  look  upon  his  face,  c*-6) 

And  his  name  will  be  on  their  foreheads. 
And  there  will  be  no  more  night  there, 
And  they  will  have  no  need  of  the  light  of  lamp  or  sun, 
For  the  Lord  God  will  illumine  them; 
And  they  will  reign  for  ever  and  ever. 

Then  he  said  to  me,  do  not  seal  up  the  word  of  the  its 
prophecy  of  this  book,  for  the  time  is  near.  ™Sng 

(10-15) 

Let  the  wicked  still  be  wicked, 
Let  the  filthy  still  be  filthy, 
Let  the  righteous  still  do  right, 
Let  the  holy  still  be  holy. 
Behold  I  am  coming  quickly, 
And  my  reward  is  with  me, 
To  reward  each  one  for  what  he  has  done. 
I  am  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega, 
The  First  and  the  Last, 
The  Beginning  and  the  End. 
Blessed  are  those  who  wash  their  robes, 
269 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

That  theirs  may  be  the  right  to  the  tree  of  life, 
That  they  may  go  through  the  gates  into  the  city. 
Without  are  the  dogs  and  the  sorcerers, 
The  fornicators,  the  murderers,  and  the  idolaters, 
And  everyone  who  loves  and  practises  falsehood. 

worfd-        *>  Jesus,  have  sent  my  angel  to  testify  these  things  to 
Side  "    you  for  the  churches. 

invita- 

(£ni7)  I  am  the  Root  and  the  Offspring  of  David, 

The  bright,  the  morning  Star. 
The  Spirit  and  the  Bride  say,  Come, 
And  he  who  hears,  let  him  say,  Come; 
And  let  the  thirsty  come, 
Whoever  will,  let  him  take  the  water  of  life  freely. 

I.  The  Aim  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  Through  the  ages  the 
book  of  Revelation  has  been  the  stumbling-block  of  the  realist  and 
the  delight  of  the  mystic.  Hundreds  of  volumes  have  been  written 
interpreting  its  symbolism.  Its  magic  phrases  have  been  interwoven 
in  Christian  hymns  and  the  devotional  life  of  the  church;  but  for 
the  majority  of  men  and  women  to-day  it  is  a  sealed  book — sealed  so 
tightly  that  they  pass  it  by  with  calm  unconcern.  It  represents  the 
opposite  pole  of  thought  from  that  of  the  present  historical,  scientific 
age.  Its  literary  antecedents  are  the  apocalypses  of  Ezekiel,  Zech- 
ariah,  and  the  closing  chapters  of  Daniel.  Its  author  was  a  poet  and 
a  dreamer;  but,  like  the  authors  of  I  Peter  and  Hebrews,  his  aim  was 
intensely  practical.  The  hopes,  which  he  clothes  in  his  highly  sym- 
bolic visions,  were  the  common  property  of  the  primitive  church. 
Paul  frequently  alluded  to  them.  In  the  second  chapter  of  II  Thes- 
salonians  he  presents  these  hopes  in  detail.  The  authors  of  I  Peter 
and  Hebrews  were  constantly  reminding  their  readers  that  "the  end 
of  all  is  near."  These  apocalyptic  hopes,  as  have  been  noted,  were  a 
part  of  their  Jewish  inheritance.  But  the  attitude  of  the  Graeco- 
Roman  world  was  also  that  of  expectancy.  The  greater  the  prevailing 
vice  and  suffering,  the  more  ardently  Jew  and  Gentile  hoped  and  be- 
lieved that  a  great  world  upheaval  was  near.  In  his  preface  the 
author  of  Revelation  states  that  his  purpose  was  to  "show  what  must 
soon  come  to  pass."  But  his  aim  was  not  merely  to  satisfy  the  curiosity 
of  his  fellow  Christians;  it  was  to  prevent  their  accepting  the  false 
teachings  and  teachers  to  which  he  refers  in  his  opening  exhortations 

270 


THE  AIM  OF  THE  BOOK 

to  the  seven  churches.  It  was  to  keep  the  tempted  Christians  through- 
out the  world  from  bowing  down  to  the  Beast  which  represented 
Rome  and  the  emperor-worship.  It  was  to  hold  up  so  vividly  before 
them  the  rewards  of  future  blessedness  awaiting  the  faithful  that  they 
would  resist  persecution  even  to  death.  This  strange  book  is  saturated 
with  the  spirit  and  the  ideals  that  actuated  the  early  Christian  martyrs. 
It  dramatizes  the  mighty  conflict  between  Christianity  and  heathen- 
dom. Its  appeal  is  not  primarily  to  the  reason  but  to  the  emotions. 
It  was  well  calculated  to  stir  the  enthusiasms,  to  call  forth  deeds  of 
heroic  self-sacrifice,  and  to  buoy  up  the  martyr  at  the  stake.  The 
author,  like  all  the  other  apocalyptic  writers,  was  also  inspired  by  an 
ethical  aim.  In  the  bitter  conflict  between  Christianity  and  heathen- 
dom the  righteousness  of  the  divine  Ruler  of  the  universe  was  at  the 
stake.  Our  author,  like  the  immortal  poet  who  has  given  us  the  book 
of  Job,  asserts  his  invincible  conviction  that  God  is  just  and  good 
and  that  he  will  in  the  end  vindicate,  not  only  his  righteous  servants, 
but  his  own  eternal  justice. 

II.  The  Theme  and  Literary  Character  of  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lation. In  this  book  we  have  a  stupendous  world  drama  set  forth  in 
the  form  of  an  epistle.  Under  the  influence  of  Paul's  brilliant  example, 
later  Christian  authors  and  editors  evidently  felt  that  this  was  the 
only  acceptable  way  in  which  to  gain  authority  and  general  accept- 
ance for  their  teachings.  The  personal  notes  in  the  introduction  (1-3) 
and  in  the  epilogue  (2218-21)  are  loosely  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
book.  After  1-3  the  geographical  background  of  the  book  is  not 
Asia  Minor  but  Palestine.  These  introductory  and  concluding  notes 
were  apparently  added  to  give  to  the  book  the  semblance  of  an  epistle. 
Its  theme  is  Christianity's  long  and  painful  struggle  with  paganism 
and  the  organized  forces  of  evil  and  its  ultimate  triumph.  Revelation 
also  objectifies  and  dramatizes  the  great  truth  that  the  supreme  power 
at  work  in  the  regeneration  of  human  society  is  the  spirit  and  work  of 
the  Christ  and  the  heroic  self-sacrifice  which  he  exemplifies  and  in 
turn  inspires.  Such  a  dramatic  foreshortening  of  history  possesses  a 
unique  value,  for  it  enables  us  to  see  the  great  historic  movements  in 
their  genetic  relations  and  in  their  real  significance.  The  book  of 
Revelation  is,  therefore,  a  fitting  conclusion  to  the  Bible,  which  be- 
gins with  a  description  of  the  creation  of  the  universe  and  a  setting  forth 
of  the  divine  purpose,  for  it  gives  a  glorious  picture  of  the  ultimate 
realization  of  that  purpose.  The  book  is  a  composite  of  dissolving 
visions,  all  blended  together  like  the  different  motifs  in  a  grand  ora- 

271 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

torio.  Bold  figures  and  strange  symbols,  with  which  we  have  become 
partially  familiar  in  the  Old  Testament  prophecies  and  in  contempo- 
rary Jewish  literature,  confront  us  at  every  point.  The  picture  of  a 
woman  arrayed  with  the  sun,  with  the  moon  under  her  feet,  and  on 
her  head  a  crown  of  twelve  stars,  seems  but  the  dream  of  a  mere  vision- 
ary unless  we  are  acquainted  with  the  literary  and  intellectual  atmos- 
phere which  produced  it.  A  leading  characteristic  of  the  apocalyptic 
literature  is  that  historic  forces  and  movements  are  represented  largely 
by  symbols  drawn  from  the  animal  or  natural  world.  Not  only  is 
the  imagery  exceedingly  dramatic,  but  the  action  is  rapid  and  on  a 
broad  scale.  The  whole  is  distinctly  impressionistic.  It  is  impossible 
to  visualize  many  of  these  pictures  notwithstanding  their  seeming  con- 
creteness.  If  we  could  see  in  our  mental  vision  an  objective  city  of 
gold  with  walls  of  jasper  and  twelve  huge  gates,  each  made  of  a  single 
pearl,  and  yet  the  whole  transparent  like  glass,  we  would  fail  com- 
pletely to  appreciate  the  author's  purpose.  The  language  is  that  of 
mysticism  and  it  speaks  almost  wholly  to  the  feelings.  As  the  late 
Professor  James  has  said,  in  commenting  upon  these  visions:  "They 
stir  chords  within  us  which  music  and  language  touch  in  common." 

III.  The  Authorship  and  Date  of  the  Book  of  Revelation. 
Another  marked  characteristic  of  the  apocalyptic  writings  is  that  they 
were  all  (except  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas)  published  anonymously  or 
rather  under  the  pseudonym  of  some  earlier  saint  who  was  supposed 
to  have  possessed  the  power  of  predicting  the  future.  Thus  the 
score  or  more  of  extant  Jewish  apocalypses  are  all  later  than  200  B.C., 
but  bear  the  names  of  Enoch,  Noah,  Daniel,  Baruch,  and  Ezra,  who 
lived  long  before.  From  Christian  sources  comes  the  Apocalypse  of 
Peter,  of  which  a  fragment  has  recently  been  discovered.  Although 
at  one  period  it  nearly  gained  a  place  in  the  New  Testament  canon, 
it  is  now  universally  recognized  as  pseudonymous.  It  is  probable 
that  the  book  of  Revelation  is  no  exception  to  this  otherwise  universal 
rule.  The  account  in  Mark  ll37, 38  of  a  request  of  the  disciples  James 
and  John  that  they  be  allowed  to  sit  one  on  Jesus'  right  hand  and  the 
other  on  his  left  in  his  glory,  reveals  an  apocalyptic  interest  which 
would  naturally  lead  a  later  Christian  writer  to  single  out  these  two 
disciples  as  the  most  natural  medium  for  revelations  regarding  the 
future.  The  early  death  of  the  apostle  James  was  a  well-known  fact 
of  primitive  Christian  history.  The  martyrdom  of  his  brother  John, 
though  clearly  implied  by  the  early  traditions,  was  not  so  firmly  es- 
tablished.   Hence  he  who  was  Jesus'  favorite  disciple  would  most 

272 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE 

naturally  be  selected  from  the  Twelve  as  the  one  to  whom  to  ascribe 
later  visions.  That  he  is  the  author  of  the  book  of  Revelation  is  not 
clearly  stated  but  strongly  implied  in  its  opening  chapters.  The 
possibility,  of  course,  remains  that  it  was  the  work  of  another  John. 
John,  the  presbyter  of  Ephesus,  is  held  by  many  scholars  to  be  its 
author.  It  is  probable  that  the  book  was  written  in  Ephesus,  but  the 
internal  evidence  is  decisive  that  it  is  not  from  the  same  author  that 
wrote  the  Fourth  Gospel.  The  language  and  idioms  of  the  two  books 
are  fundamentally  different.  Revelation  is  an  Hebraic  writing  tran- 
scribed rather  than  translated  into  popular,  Hellenistic  Greek.  As 
Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  says, 
after  describing  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  Gospel  of  John: 
"Utterly  diverse  and  strange  is  the  apocalypse  in  comparison  with 
all  this,  hardly  touching  or  even  approximating  to  any  of  these  things, 
having  no  common  relation  to  them."  The  God  of  Revelation  is  not 
the  loving  Father  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  but  a  majestic  King  sitting  in 
solemn  state  to  receive  the  homage  of  his  human  subjects.  Very 
different  also  is  the  portrait  of  Jesus.  In  the  book  of  Revelation  the 
note  of  love  is  almost  lacking.  It  reverses  the  words  of  Jesus  in  John 
1515:  "I  call  you  servants  no  longer.  ...  I  call  you  friends."  The 
indications  that  the  book  was  written  near  the  close  of  the  first  Chris- 
tian century  are  cumulative.  It  probably  contains  fragments  of  an 
earlier  Christian  apocalypse  coming  from  the  reign  of  Nero,  but  it 
also  reflects  the  popular  belief,  current  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century, 
that  Nero,  the  arch  persecutor  of  the  Christians,  had  again  come  back 
to  life  and  was  instigating  a  new  and  more  horrible  persecution  (178). 
The  dark  and  ominous  horizon  revealed  in  this  book  has  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Domitian.  Then  not 
only  the  Christians  of  Rome  but  all  throughout  the  empire  were  ex- 
posed to  constant  temptation  and  many  to  active  persecution.  The 
Beast  and  his  statue,  which  had  many  worshippers  (cf.  1411),  are  ap- 
parently but  veiled  allusions  to  Domitian  and  to  his  vigorous  campaign 
against  all  Christians  who  refused  publicly  to  acknowledge  his  divine 
authority.  The  book  of  Revelation,  therefore,  may  with  reasonable 
confidence  be  attributed  to  an  otherwise  unknown  Christian  prophet 
who  wrote  about  95  B.C.,  and  like  the  writers  of  the  Gospel  and  epistles 
of  John  belonged  to  the  Johannine  school,  who  were  strongly  influenced 
by  John,  the  presbyter  of  Ephesus. 

IV.     The  Contents  and  Sources  of  Revelation.    The  general 
divisions  of  the  book  of  Revelation  are  obvious.     Chapters  1-3  contain 

273 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

letters  to  seven  important  churches  in  the  province  of  Asia.  In  41- 
ll13  are  found  preliminary  visions  of  coming  judgment.  Chapters 
ll14-2015  describe  in  vivid  apocalyptic  form  the  overthrow  of  Rome 
and  of  Satan.  The  culmination  of  the  book  is  a  description,  in  21,  22, 
of  the  new  and  heavenly  reign  which  is  to  be  instituted  on  earth  when 
the  preliminary  work  of  destruction  has  been  completed.  Into  the 
body  of  the  book  have  been  woven  many  older  apocalypses  and  apoca- 
lyptic themes,  but  they  all  lead  up  to  one  grand,  final  crescendo.  Thus, 
for  example,  the  vision  in  4  of  Jehovah  seated  high  on  his  throne, 
guarded  by  four  beasts,  each  with  six  wings,  who  cry,  "Holy,  holy, 
holy,  Lord  God  Almighty,"  is  an  expansion  of  Isaiah's  magnificent 
vision  (recorded  in  Isaiah  6).  The  Old  Testament  student  also  rec- 
ognizes in  the  succeeding  visions  the  four  living  beings  of  Ezekiel  1, 
the  four  horns  of  Zechariah  1 ;  in  14,  vivid  descriptions  of  the  day  of 
judgment  drawn  from  Zephaniah  and  Joel.  The  glowing  picture  of 
the  New  Jerusalem  is  suggested  by  Isaiah  49-54.  The  figures  and 
symbols  of  Daniel  7-12  also  reappear  at  many  points.  In  Revelation 
11-13  and  18  there  are  traces  of  older  Jewish  apocalypses,  which  have 
been  only  slightly  revised  and  adjusted  to  their  new  Christian  setting. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  command  in  ll1" 2  "to  rise  up  and  measure  the 
temple  of  God  and  the  altar"  strongly  implies  that  this  was  first  written 
before  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  temple  in  70  a.d.  Furthermore, 
in  the  symbolism  there  are  unmistakable  traces  of  older  Babylonian 
and  Persian  myths.  The  sun  and  moon  and  the  five  planets  are 
probably  to  be  identified  with  the  seven  astral  deities  of  the  Baby- 
lonian pantheon.  Corresponding  to  these  are  the  seven  spirits  in  l4 
and  the  seven  angels  in  82.  The  huge  red  dragon,  with  its  seven  heads 
and  seven  horns  and  seven  diadems  upon  its  heads,  which  "with  his 
tail  swept  away  a  third  of  the  stars  of  heaven  and  flung  them  to  the 
earth,"  probably  represents  the  later  Jewish  version  of  the  old  Baby- 
lonian story  of  Tiamat,  personified  chaos,  that  contended  against  the 
gods.  In  Revelation  12,  "that  old  serpent  is  called  the  Devil  and 
Satan,  the  seducer  of  the  whole  earth."  He  is  overthrown  by  the  angels 
of  heaven,  led  by  Michael,  who  in  the  book  of  Daniel  figures  as  Israel's 
patron  angel. 

V.  The  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  Inter- 
preters of  Revelation  are  divided  into  two  distinct  groups.  The  first 
includes  those  who  disregard  the  fact  that  a  fundamental  characteristic 
of  the  apocalyptic  type  of  literature  is  the  presentation  of  past  and 
present  history  as  though  it  were  still  future.     Therefore,  they  regard 

274 


ITS  INTERPRETATION 

the  visions  as  predictions  yet  to  be  fulfilled  and  interpret  them  liter- 
alistically.  The  second  group  interpret  the  visions  in  the  light  of  the 
conditions  that  obtained  during  the  first  Christian  century  and  seek 
to  find  the  underlying  principles  which  they  illustrate.  The  first 
group  rarely  agree  in  their  detailed  interpretations,  for  they  ignore  the 
historical  background  and  are  guided  almost  wholly  by  ingenious  con- 
jecture. Their  followers  are  usually  of  the  mystical,  enigmatical  type 
of  mind  that  scorns  scientific  methods  of  research.  The  second  group 
follow  the  only  method  that  promises  to  give  a  true  understanding  of 
the  thought  and  purpose  of  the  original  writer.  The  selection  of 
seven  churches  is  probably  because  seven  is  a  part  of  the  prevailing  sym- 
bolism of  the  book.  The  churches  mentioned  first  are  situated  in  the 
three  leading  cities  along  the  eastern  iEgean.  The  order  is  from  south 
to  north:  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  and  Pergamum;  then  from  north  to 
south,  including  representative  inland  towns.  Each  of  these  churches 
had  on  the  whole  proved  faithful.  The  allusion  to  "Satan's  throne" 
is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  Pergamum  was  the  old  capital  of  the 
province  of  Asia  and  was  therefore  the  traditional  centre  of  the  emperor- 
worship.  Since  29  B.C.  it  had  also  had  a  flourishing  temple  dedicated 
to  Augustus  or  Rome. 

Chapters  4-6  contain  the  impressive  introduction  to  the  great  world 
drama.  In  5  the  Almighty  is  pictured,  seated  on  his  throne,  attended 
by  angels  and  worshipped  by  the  representatives  of  the  church.  In  5 
the  figure  of  the  "Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  the  Scion  of  David" 
looms  up  impressively.  He  proves  to  be  none  other  than  "the  Lamb 
that  seemed  to  have  been  slain."  This  unique  description  of  the 
Messiah  is  evidently  taken  from  Isaiah  537  ("as  a  lamb  that  is  led  to 
the  slaughter").  In  6  the  agents  of  death  appear.  In  these  opening 
chapters  the  poet  brings  out  with  great  dramatic  effectiveness  the 
tremendous  contrast  between  the  bitter  conflict  that  was  then  raging 
and  that  was  destined  to  rage  between  the  church  and  the  empire,  and 
the  peace  and  majesty  in  heaven  above.  Chapter  7,  which  represents 
a  digression  from  the  main  theme,  introduces  another  element  of  con- 
trast, for  it  gives  an  anticipatory  vision  of  the  countless  hosts  of  the 
servants  of  God.  It  is  evidently  introduced  to  give  the  reader  an 
assurance  of  the  ultimate  outcome  of  the  great  conflict. 

The  recurrence  of  the  number  seven  gives  a  certain  literary  unity  to 
the  book.  Not  only  are  there  seven  letters  to  seven  churches  from 
the  seven  spirits  before  the  divine  throne,  but  the  scroll  which  con- 
tains the  record  apparently  of  the  sins  of  mankind  is  sealed  by  seven 

275 


VISIONS  IN  THE  BOOK  OF  REVELATION 

seals.  At  the  breaking  of  each  of  these  seals  a  new  judgment  is  visited 
upon  the  earth.  The  breaking  of  the  seventh  seal  (81"5)  is  the  prelude 
to  the  blowing  of  seven  trumpets  that  announce  the  world  judgment. 
Each  blast  introduces  one  of  the  natural  portents,  which  were  associ- 
ated in  apocalyptic  thought  with  the  end  of  the  world.  The  blowing 
of  the  sixth  trumpet  marked  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (ll1-14). 
With  the  blowing  of  the  seventh  trumpet,  the  scene  is  transferred 
temporarily  from  earth  to  heaven.  This  last  blast  inaugurates  the 
titanic  struggle  between  the  hosts  of  good  and  evil.  Here  the  author 
weaves  in  many  of  the  figures  of  the  old  mythology  and  it  is  difficult 
to  be  absolutely  sure  of  his  meaning  at  every  point.  Chapter  12  is 
the  most  difficult  in  the  book.  The  people  of  promise,  of  whom  the 
Christians  are  the  lineal  heirs,  is  apparently  represented  by  the  woman 
clad  in  the  sun  with  the  moon  under  her  feet.  The  male  child  to  whom 
she  gives  birth,  who  is  to  "shepherd  all  the  nations  with  an  iron  flail 
and  who  was  caught  up  to  God  and  to  his  throne,"  is  clearly  the  Mes- 
siah or  Lamb  whose  victorious  role  is  later  described.  The  first  of 
the  two  Beasts,  which  emerge  in  13,  represents  Rome  and  the  emperor- 
worship;  the  second  Beast  her  zealous  provincial  priesthood  that  had 
"every  one  put  to  death  who  would  not  worship  the  statue  of  the 
Beast  and  obliges  all  men  low  and  high,  rich  and  poor,  freemen  and 
slaves  alike,  to  have  a  mark  put  upon  their  right  hand  or  forehead  so 
that  no  one  can  buy  or  sell  unless  he  bears  the  mark,  that  is  the  name 
of  the  Beast."  The  cipher  666  is  the  total  of  the  numerical  values 
represented  by  the  Hebrew  letters  of  the  name  Csesar  Neron  (k  =  100, 
s  =  60,  r  =  200,  n  =  50,  r  =  200,  w  =  6,  and  n  =  50;  making  666). 
This  identification  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  the  old  Latin 
version,  where  Nero  is  written  without  the  final  n  (which  equals  50), 
the  number  is  616,  representing  again  the  exact  total  of  the  Hebrew 
letters.  Chapter  141"5  is  another  of  those  marvellous  digressions  which 
stir  the  imagination  and  hope  of  the  reader  and  anticipate  the  final 
victory  recorded  in  21  and  22.  In  146-20  the  theme  of  judgment  is 
again  taken  up,  and  in  14"20  the  final  judgment  recorded  in  the  succeed- 
ing chapters  is  anticipated.  In  15M61  the  scene  is  transferred  again 
to  earth.  The  seven  angels  with  seven  bowls  represent  the  seven 
plagues  which  are  poured  out  upon  earth.  Again  the  seventh  is  the 
culmination.  This  last  bowl  is  emptied  upon  Rome,  the  woman 
with  seven  heads,  which  represented  the  seven  hills  on  which  she  was 
seated  and  the  seven  kings  who  ruled  over  her  (179, 10).  The  eighth 
head  is  apparently  to  be  identified  with  Domitian.    The  ten  horns 

276 


ITS  INTERPRETATION 

possibly  stand  for  the  angelic  being  which  will  fight  for  her  at  the 
great  final  conflict.  The  vivid  description  of  the  overthrow  of  Rome 
in  18  was  largely  suggested  by  the  II  Isaiah's  lament  over  fallen  Baby- 
lon (Isaiah  47),  and  that  of  Ezekiel  over  Tyre  (Ezek.  26,  27).  Chapter 
191"10  contains  another  of  the  wonderful  anticipatory  visions  of  the 
certain  vindication  of  the  faithful.  It  furnishes  an  effective  contrast 
to  the  powerful  description  of  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Beast  and  of 
Satan  in  19n-2015. 

The  culminating  scene  of  this  tremendous  drama  (211-2217)  is  one 
of  the  most  poetic  and  powerful  passages  in  literature.  Here  all  the 
noblest  promises  found  in  the  Old  Testament  prophets  are  presented 
in  one  stupendous,  concrete  picture.  The  underlying  thought  is  that 
after  all  the  evil  in  the  earth  has  been  swept  away  by  the  purifying 
fires  of  judgment,  God  himself  will  come  to  dwell  among  his  faithful 
people  and  to  satisfy  their  every  want.  Jew  and  Gentile  will  share 
alike  in  the  privileges  of  this  ideal  commonwealth  in  which  "nothing 
unclean  shall  enter,  nor  any  one  who  practises  abomination  or  false- 
hood." Like  Paul,  the  author  of  Revelation  is  endeavoring  to  portray 
objectively  the  ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  the  community  of  the 
morally  and  socially  redeemed,  that  Jesus  held  up  before  his  followers. 
It  is  this  picture  of  the  perfect  social  state,  as  the  final  goal  of  creation, 
which  gives  to  the  book  its  perennial  value  for  all  generations. 

§  CLXVIH.    THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  OF  THE  EPISTLE  OF 

JAMES 

James,  a  servant  of  God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  to  Greet- 
the  twelve  tribes  in  the  dispersion,  greeting.  ciames 

Count  it  as  pure  joy,  my  brothers,  whenever  you  find  i1) 
yourselves  hedged  about  by  various  trials.    Be  sure  that  The 
the  testing  of  your  faith  produces  endurance ;  only  let  your  Jesting 
endurance  be  a  finished  product  that  you  may  be  perfect  and  faith 
complete,  lacking  in  nothing.    If  any  of  you  lack  wisdom,  (2"8) 
let  him  ask  God  who  giveth  to  all  men  liberally  and  without 
reproach,  and  it  shall  be  given  him.    Only  let  him  ask  in 
faith,  with  never  a  doubt;  for  the  man  who  doubts  is  like 
a  surge  of  the  sea  driven  and  tossed  by  the  wind.    Let  not 
that  man  think  that  from  the  Lord  he  will  receive  anything, 
double-minded  that  he  is,  unstable  in  all  his  ways. 

Let  a  brother  of  low  position  rejoice  when  he  is  raised  up; 

277 


(12-15) 


THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  IN  JAMES 

The       but  also  let  one  who  is  rich  rejoice  in  being  brought  low, 

tafcSTy  for  ne  wul  Pass  away  uke  the  flower  of  me  grass* for  ^e  sun 
of  rises  with  the  scorching  wind  and  the  grass  withers,  its 
(ST  flower  drops  off,  and  the  beauty  of  its  appearance  perishes. 
So  shall  the  rich  fade  away  in  the  midst  of  their  undertakings. 
The  Happy  is  the  man  who  endures  under  trial;  for  when  he 

Sure    nas  stood  the  test  he  will  receive  the  crown  of  life  which  is 
of         promised  to  all  who  love  God.    Let  no  one  say,  when  he  is 
Son    being  tried  by  temptation,  I  am  being  tempted  by  God;  for 
God  is  incapable  of  being  tempted  by  evil  and  he  tempts 
no  one.    Everyone  is  tempted  as  he  is  carried  away  and 
lured  by  his  own  desire;  then  desire  conceives  and  bears 
sin  and  when  sin  is  fully  matured  it  gives  birth  to  death. 
Gods         My  beloved  brothers,  do  not  be  deceived:  every  gift  is 
gjy      good  and  every  endowment  is  perfect,  coming  down  from 
good      above,  from  the  Father  who  is  the  source  of  all  love,  with 
(1618)      whom  there  is  no  variation  nor  shadow  of  change.    In  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  will  he  brought  us  forth  by  the 
word  of  truth,  in  order  that  we  might  be  a  kind  of  first- 
fruits  among  his  creatures. 
The  Know  this,  my  beloved  brothers.    Therefore,  let  every 

Sty^f  man  be  quick  to  hear,  slow  to  speak,  slow  to  be  angry;  for 
self-  human  anger  does  not  lead  to  what  God  regards  as  right. 
(i^)1"01  So  ridding  yourselves  of  all  that  is  vile  and  of  the  evil  that 
abounds,  receive  humbly  the  message  implanted  within  you 
which  is  able  to  save  your  souls, 
of  Act  on  the  word  instead  of  merely  hearing  it  and  deluding 

ence1"  yourselves.  For,  if  any  one  hears  but  does  not  act,  he  is 
(22-25)  iike  a  man  wh0  looks  at  his  natural  face  in  a  mirror,  for  he 
looks  at  himself,  goes  off  and  at  once  forgets  what  he  was 
like.  But  he  who  looks  intently  at  the  perfect  law  of  free- 
dom and  continues  looking,  proving  himself  to  be  no  forget- 
ful hearer,  but  an  active  doer,  will  be  blessed  in  his  activity. 
The  If  any  one  thinks  he  is  religious  and  does  not  bridle  his 

essence  tongue  but  deceives  himself,  his  religion  is  worthless.    The 
ligion     religion  that  is  pure  and  stainless  in  the  sight  of  God  the 
(W27)     Father  is  this:  to  care  personally  for  orphans  and  widows 
in  their  trouble  and  to  keep  oneself  unspotted  from  the 
world. 
My  brothers,  as  you  believe  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who 

278 


THE  DEMOCRACY 

is  our  glory,  do  not  show  favoritism.  For  suppose  a  man  True 
comes  into  one  of  your  meetings,  wearing  gold  rings  and  JS^00" 
handsome  clothes,  and  there  also  comes  in  a  poor  man  in  (21  ■•) 
dirty  clothes.  If  you  attend  to  the  one  who  wears  hand- 
some clothes  and  say,  Sit  here,  this  is  a  good  place,  and  say 
to  the  poor  man,  Stand  there,  or  Sit  at  my  feet,  are  you  not 
making  distinctions  among  yourselves  and  judging  people 
with  wrong  standards  ?  Listen,  my  beloved  brothers,  hath 
not  God  chosen  the  poor  of  this  world  to  be  rich  in  faith  and 
to  inherit  the  Kingdom  which  he  has  promised  to  those  who 
love  him?  Yet  you  insult  the  poor  man.  Is  it  not  the  rich 
who  lord  it  over  you  and  themselves  drag  you  into  law 
courts ?  Is  it  not  they  who  revile  the  noble  name  you  bear? 
If,  however,  you  are  fulfilling  the  royal  law  according  to 
scripture,  which  says,  You  must  love  your  neighbor  as  your- 
self, you  are  doing  well;  but  if  you  show  partiality  you  are 
committing  sin  and  are  convicted  by  the  law  as  offenders. 

For  whoever  obeys  the  law  as  a  whole,  but  makes  a  single  The 
slip  is  guilty  of  everything.     For  he  who  said,  Do  not  com-  Styeof 
mit  adultery,  also  said,  Do  not  kill.    Now,  if  you  do  not  c™°?-- 
commit  adultery  but  do  kill,  you  have  transgressed  the  law.  obeS- 
Speak  and  act  as  those  who  are  to  be  judged  by  the  law  of  <SS?) 
freedom;  for  a  merciless  judgment  will  be  meted  out  to 
him  who  shows  no  mercy;  but  mercy  triumphs  in  the  face 
of  judgment. 

What  use  is  it,  my  brothers,  if  a  man  says  he  has  faith  The 
and  yet  has  no  works?    Can  his  faith  save  him?    Suppose  Sff&tli 
a  brother  or  a  sister  is  ill-clad  or  lacks  daily  food,  and  one  ^h- 
of  you  says  to  them,  Depart  in  peace ;  be  warmed  and  well  works 
fed,  but  does  not  give  them  what  their  body  needs,  what  (u  19) 
use  is  that?     So  faith  without  deeds  is  dead  in  itself.    But 
some  one  will  say,  You  have  faith !    Yes,  and  I  have  deeds 
as  well.    You  show  me  your  faith  without  works  and  I  will 
show  you  by  works  what  faith  is !    You  believe  in  one  God? 
You  are  quite  right;  evil  spirits  also  believe  and  shudder. 

My  brothers,  let  not  many  become  teachers,  for  you  know  The 
that  we  teachers  shall  be  subjected  to  severe  judgment.  Styeof 
We  all  make  many  slips;  if  any  one  does  not  make  a  slip  JJSiing 
in  speech  that  man  is  perfect;  he  is  able  to  curb  his  whole  {*e 
nature.    In  the  case  of  horses  we  put  the  bridles  into  their  <3?-«?e 

279 


THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  IN  JAMES 

mouths  to  make  them  obey  us  and  so  we  move  the  whole 
of  their  bodies.     See  also  the  ships;  though  of  great  size 
and  driven  by  stiff  winds,  they  are  turned  by  a  tiny  rudder, 
wherever  the  mind  of  the  steersman  wishes.    So  the  tongue 
is  a  small  member  of  the  body,  but  it  can  boast  of  great 
achievements!    See  how  a  little   spark  may  set  a  vast 
forest  on  fire!    The  tongue  also  is  a  fire.    It  is  a  world  of 
mischief.    The  tongue  is  set  among  our  members,  stain- 
ing the  whole  body  and  setting  fire  to  the  whole  circle  of 
existence  and  is  itself  set  on  fire  by  hell.    For  every  kind  of 
beast  and  bird,  of  creeping  animals  and  creatures  of  the  sea 
may  be  tamed  and  has  been  tamed  by  mankind;  but  no 
man  can  tame  the  tongue.    It  is  an  incessant  evil,  full  of 
deadly  venom!    With  it  we  bless  the  Lord  and  Father,  and 
with  it  we  curse  men  made  in  the  likeness  of  God.    Blesses 
and  curses  come  from  the  same  mouth.    My  brothers, 
this  ought  not  to  be.    Does  a  fountain  pour  out  fresh  water 
and  bitter  from  the  same  opening?    Can  a  fig  tree,  my 
brothers,  bear  olives?    Or  a  vine,  figs?    No  more  can  salt 
water  yield  fresh. 
Noble        Who  among  you  is  wise  and  intelligent?    Let  him  show 
tble^i-  by  ™se  conduct  that  his  deeds  are  inspired  by  a  wise 
df  tme   moc*esty.    But  if  you  are  cherishing  in  your  hearts  bitter 
Sas-me   jealousy  and  rivalry,  do  not  speak  boastfully  and  falsely 
(S)      against  the  truth.    That  is  not  the  wisdom  which  comes 
down  from  above,  but  it  is  earthly,  sensuous  and  devilish. 
For  wherever  jealousy  and  rivalry  are  there  is  disorder 
and  every  kind  of  vile  deed.    The  wisdom  from  above  is 
first  of  all  pure,  then  peaceable,  forbearing,  well-wishing, 
full  of  mercy,  and  good  fruits,  impartial  and  sincere.    For 
the  peacemakers  who  sow  in  peace  there  is  a  harvest  of 
righteousness. 
causes       What  causes  wars  and  contentions  in  your  midst?    Is  it 
$i^)ar    not  from  the  cravings  which  are  at  war  in  your  members  ? 
You  crave  things  and  yet  cannot  get  them.    You  envy  and 
covet,  yet  you  cannot  obtain  your  end.    You  fight  and  make 
war;  you  do  not  get  what  you  want  because  you  do  not 
ask  God  for  it.    You  do  ask,  but  you  do  not  receive  because 
you  ask  with  the  wicked  intent  that  you  may  spend  it  on  your 
pleasures. 

280 


THE  CURSE  UPON  ILI^-GOTTEN  RICHES 

Come  now,  you  rich  men,  weep  and  howl  over  your  im-  The 
pending  miseries.    Your  riches  are  rotting,  your  clothes  are  g£S 
moth-eaten,  your  gold  and  silver  are  covered  with  rust  and  i^~tten 
their  rust  will  be  evidence  against  you  and  it  will  devour  nchS 
your  flesh  like  fire.    You  have  been  storing  up  treasures  (51"6) 
in  these  last  days.    See  the  wages  due  those  who  have 
reaped  your  fields — the  wages  of  which  you  have  defrauded 
them — are  calling  out  against  you  and  the  cries  of  the  har- 
vesters have  reached  the  ears  of  the  Lord  of  hosts.    You 
have  revelled  here  on  earth  and  given  yourselves  to  pleasure ; 
you  have  fattened  yourselves  as  for  the  day  of  slaughter; 
you  have  condemned,  you  have  murdered  the  righteous 
man  who  does  not  resist  you. 

Be  patient  therefore,  brothers,  until  the  Lord  arrives.  The 
See  how  the  farmer  waits  for  the  precious  fruit  of  the  of  the* 
earth,  waiting  patiently  over  it  until  it  receives  the  early  Lord 
and  latter  rain.    So  you  must  be  patient.    Strengthen  your 
hearts,  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord  is  near.    Do  not  murmur 
against  one  another,  brothers,  lest  you  be  judged.    See, 
the  judge  is  standing  at  the  door!    Take,  brothers,  as  an 
example  of  fortitude  and  patience  the  prophets  who  have 
spoken  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.    Remember,  we  call  those 
blessed  who  patiently  endure.    You  have  heard  of  Job's 
patient  endurance  and  you  have  seen  the  issue  of  the  Lord's 
dealing  with  him,  how  the  Lord  is  full  of  compassion  and 
pity. 

But  above  all,  my  brothers,  swear  not,  neither  by  heaven  To 
nor  by  earth,  nor  by  anything  else.    Let  your  '  Yes '  be  a  JJ[oid 
simple  *  Yes  '  and  your  *  No  '  a  simple  *  No,'  that  you  may  oaths 
not  fall  under  condemnation. 

Is  any  one  of  you  suffering?    Let  him  pray.    Is  any  one  The 
in  good  spirits?    Let  him  sing  praise.    Is  any  one  among  lfue 
you  sick?    Let  him  send  for  the  elders  of  the  church  and  gay" 
let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord.    And  the  prayer  of  faith  will  restore  the  sick 
man,  and  the  Lord  will  raise  him  up;  even  if  he  has  com- 
mitted sins  they  will  be  forgiven  him.    So  confess  your 
sins  to  one  another,  and  pray  for  one  another  that  you 
may  be  healed.    The  prayers  of  a  righteous  man  exert  a 
powerful  influence.    Elijah  was  a  man  with  a  nature  like 

281 


THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  IN  JAMES 

ours;  and  he  earnestly  prayed  that  there  might  be  no  rain 

and  for  three  years  and  six  months  there  was  no  rain.    Then 

he  prayed  again,  and  the  sky  gave  forth  rain  and  the  earth 

yielded  its  fruit. 

The  My  brothers,  if  any  of  you  goes  away  from  the  truth 

San's"    aad  some  one  brings  him  back,  know  that  he  who  brings 

oppor-    the  sinner  back  from  the  error  of  his  way  saves  his  soul 

(l£?o)y    from  death  and  covers  a  multitude  of  sins. 

I.  The  Literary  Form  of  the  Epistle  of  James.  The  epistle 
of  James  stands  unique  among  the  New  Testament  writers.  In  liter- 
ary form  it  resembles  more  closely  the  collection  of  Jesus'  sayings 
found  in  the  so-called  "Sermon  on  the  Mount"  (Matt.  5-7)  than  any 
other  New  Testament  book.  Like  the  proverbs  and  gnomic  essays 
in  Ben  Sira  and  the  book  of  Proverbs,  it  is  a  string  of  pearls  loosely 
strung  together  and  sent  forth  as  an  epistle.  At  many  points  the 
author  shows  intimate  familiarity  with  the  writings  of  the  famous  old 
Jewish  sage,  Ben  Sira  (e.  g.,  I12,  and  B.  Sir.  318"10).  The  author's  com- 
parison of  the  words  of  a  teacher  to  a  stream  flowing  from  a  fountain 
is  taken  from  Ben  Sira  2430.  In  54"6  he  evidently  had  in  mind  the  words 
of  that  famous  wise  man,  found  in  3432:  "He  who  deprives  the  hireling 
of  his  hire  is  a  shedder  of  blood."  The  literary  characteristics  of  the 
epistle  of  James  are  those  of  the  Jewish  wisdom  literature,  which  found 
its  later  counterparts  in  the  writings  of  Epictetus  and  Marcus  Aurelius. 
The  thought  gathers  about  certain  themes,  such  as  temptation,  the 
value  of  riches,  the  use  of  the  tongue,  and  the  relation  of  faith  and 
works.  The  themes  discussed  throughout  are  those  which  especially 
interested  the  sages  and  moralists  of  all  ages.  The  tone  is  that  of  a 
practical,  ethical  teacher.  Fifty-four  imperatives  are  found  in  the  one 
hundred  and  eight  verses.  The  style  is  vivid,  the  literary  figures 
fresh  and  striking,  and  the  illustrations  are  drawn  from  nature  and 
every-day  life.  Although  there  is  a  distinctly  Jewish  coloring,  the 
language  is  that  of  a  finished  Greek  writer.  There  are  no  traces  of 
the  strong  Aramaic  influence  which  is  clearly  apparent  in  many  other 
New  Testament  writings. 

II.  The  Aim  of  the  Epistle  of  James.  The  forceful  literary 
form  in  which  the  thought  is  expressed  strongly  suggests  that  this 
epistle  contains  teachings  which  had  often  been  communicated  orally 
before  they  were  committed  to  writing.  In  31  the  author  plainly 
states  that  he  was  a  teacher.     Like  Ben  Sira,  his  aim  was  evidently  to 

282 


THE  AIM  OF  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES 

put  in  permanent  form  the  most  important  of  his  practical  teachings. 
His  abrupt  ending  also  recalls  that  of  Ben  Sira  and  the  book  of  Prov- 
erbs. The  indications  of  logical  order  are  more  evident  in  the  first 
part  of  the  book;  the  latter  part  contains  loosely  arranged  supplemental 
teachings.  The  author's  aim  was  to  correct  certain  false  interpreta- 
tions of  Christianity  that  were  then  current.  Paul's  doctrine  of  jus- 
tification through  faith  had  evidently  been  misinterpreted  and  mis- 
used by  many  who  claimed,  in  practice  at  least,  that  intellectual  be- 
liefs or  mystical  religious  experiences  were  the  essentials  in  the  Christian 
life,  and  that  their  moral  acts  were  relatively  unimportant.  It  is  not 
entirely  clear  whether  the  author  is  taking  direct  issue  with  Paul's 
assertion,  for  example,  in  Galatians  216,  "  that  a  man  is  justified  simply 
by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ"  or  with  the  misinterpreters  of  Paul.  In 
any  case,  it  is  obvious  that  the  entire  aim  of  the  book  is  practical 
rather  than  theological.  The  author  and  Paul  live  in  different  intel- 
lectual worlds.  Evidently  the  author  of  the  epistle  of  James  was 
familiar  with  Galatians,  I  Corinthians,  and  Romans,  and  did  not  wholly 
approve  of  Paul's  emphasis  on  faith  in  contrast  to  works;  but  he  had 
no  desire  nor  intention  to  enter  into  a  controversy  with  the  great 
apostle.  His  chief  concern  was  to  deliver  the  church  from  the  abuses 
which,  in  his  day,  were  bringing  disgrace  upon  the  name  of  Christ. 
In  addressing  his  teachings  to  "the  twelve  tribes  in  the  dispersion,"  it 
is  clear  that  he  was  not  speaking  to  Jews  but  to  Christendom.  When 
he  wrote  it  was  the  universally  accepted  belief  throughout  the  church 
that  the  Christians  were  the  lineal  heirs  of  the  chosen  people.  Like 
the  Jews  after  the  exile,  they  were  scattered  widely  throughout  the 
world.  In  the  light  of  his  teachings  it  is  also  evident  that  he  was 
addressing  not  Jews  nor  the  heathen,  but  backsliding  members  of  the 
Christian  commonwealth  and  that,  as  has  well  been  said,  his  aim  was 
"to  hold  a  mirror  before  his  brethren  that  they  might  see  their  sorry 
figures  and  be  lastingly  ashamed." 

III.  The  Authorship  and  Date  of  James.  The  gnomic  form 
of  the  book  and  its  strong  social  interest  suggest  at  once  a  kinship 
with  the  teachings  of  Jesus.  The  emphasis  on  law,  as  opposed  to  faith, 
also  seems  to  point  to  James,  the  stanch  supporter  of  the  Jewish  law. 
He  it  was  who,  according  to  Paul,  forced  even  Peter  and  Barnabas  to 
recant  from  the  broad  position  which  they  had  taken  in  their  relation 
to  Gentile  Christians  (Gal.  212-14).  Josephus  in  his  Antiquities  (XX,  91) 
states  that  Ananus,  or  Annas,  the  son  of  the  corrupt  high  priest  of 
the  same  name  who  had  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  causing  the 

283 


THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  IN  JAMES 

crucifixion  of  Jesus,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  priesthood.  After  the 
death  of  the  procurator  Festus  he  put  to  death  James,  the  brother  of 
Jesus.  Josephus  says  that  this  younger  Ananus  "was  a  bold  man  in 
his  temper  and  very  insolent.  He  also  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the 
Sadducees,  who  were  more  rigorous  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews  in  judging 
offenders.  Accordingly  (while  Albinus,  the  new  procurator,  was  still 
on  his  way  to  Judea),  he  assembled  the  court  of  the  Sanhedrin  and 
brought  before  them  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  who  was  called 
Christ,  and  certain  others,  and,  when  he  had  preferred  an  accusation 
against  them  as  breakers  of  the  law,  he  delivered  them  to  be  stoned.*' 
Josephus  adds  that  this  act  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
better-minded  Jews  and  that  as  a  result  Ananus  was  speedily  removed 
from  the  high-priesthood.  The  date  of  the  death  of  James,  the  brother 
of  Jesus,  was  therefore  about  62  a.d.,  under  the  reign  of  Nero.  The 
real  cause  of  his  death  was  probably  the  fear  of  the  Sadducees  lest  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  Messiah  might  compromise  them  with  Rome. 
Symeon,  a  nephew  of  Joseph  and  a  cousin  of  Jesus,  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Christian  church  in  Palestine;  but  even  before  the  death  of 
James  the  centre  of  thought  and  influence  had  passed  to  the  Western 
Church.  From  the  occasional  references  to  James,  the  brother  of 
Jesus,  it  is  evident  that  he  was  a  strong  character,  zealous  for  the 
Jewish  law  and  eager  to  prevent  a  breach  between  Christianity  and 
Judaism.  In  the  light  of  his  historical  relations  to  Paul,  opposition 
to  the  teachings  of  the  great  apostle,  such  as  is  implied  in  the  epistle 
of  James,  might  be  expected.  The  date  of  James's  martyrdom  would 
give  time  for  him  to  become  acquainted  with  the  epistles  as  well  as 
with  the  teachings  of  Paul.  It  is  not  entirely  impossible  that  some  of 
the  teachings  of  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  have  been  incorporated 
in  this  epistle,  but  the  evidence  that  he  is  not  its  author  is  overwhelm- 
ing. The  practical  impossibility  that  a  Galilean  peasant,  constantly 
using  Aramaic,  could  write  in  a  rhetorical  Greek  style,  free  from  all 
Aramaisms,  has  long  been  recognized.  The  legal  emphasis  in  this 
epistle  is  not  upon  the  Jewish  law  but  upon  a  body  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples which  had  begun  to  take  definite  form  near  the  close  of  the  first 
Christian  century.  Not  a  single  reference  is  found  in  the  epistle  to  the 
earlier  conflict  between  Judaism  and  Christianity.  When  its  author 
wrote,  entirely  new  problems  were  on  the  horizon.  Paul's  teachings 
and  work  are  not  in  the  near  but  remote  background.  It  is  practically 
incredible  that  a  writing  coming  from  the  brother  of  Jesus  could  have 
been  so  completely  without  personal  references  to  the  Master  and  to 

284 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE 

his  teachings  as  is  the  epistle  of  James.  Its  problems  and  interests 
are  practically  the  same  as  those  that  figure  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  in  the  writings  of  Clement  of  E-ome,  and  in  the  Shepherd  of 
Hermas,  which  belong  to  the  last  two  decades  of  the  first  and  opening 
years  of  the  second  century.  The  evidence  is  also  reasonably  convinc- 
ing that  the  author  was  familiar  with  I  Peter.  Add  to  this  the  peculiar 
problems  with  which  he  is  dealing,  and  the  proof  becomes  cumulative 
that  he  was  probably  a  Greek  Christian,  by  the  name  of  James,  who 
wrote  from  Rome  during  the  closing  years  of  the  first  or  the  opening 
years  of  the  second  century.  This  conclusion  is  in  full  accord  with 
the  testimony  of  the  superscription,  as  well  as  with  the  contents  of 
the  epistle.  The  earliest  church  traditions  also  support  this  dating. 
Eusebius  placed  this  epistle  among  the  controverted  books.  Jerome 
says  that  it  was  probably  written  by  a  different  James  from  the  brother 
of  Jesus,  though  it  gradually  acquired  authority.  It  is  not  found  in 
the  earliest  lists  of  New  Testament  books,  and  not  until  the  third 
century  did  it  gain  an  established  place  in  the  canon.  Its  place  there 
is  probably  due  to  the  later  belief  that  it  was  written  by  the  brother 
of  Jesus;  but  its  contents  and  contribution  to  the  history  of  Christian- 
ity amply  justify  its  position  in  the  canon.  The  New  Testament, 
like  the  Old,  reflects  many  diverse  points  of  view  and  beliefs.  Not 
the  least  of  its  charms  and  values  is  that  it  presents  not  merely  one 
but  all  sides  of  truth. 

IV.  The  Contributions  of  the  Book  of  James  to  Developing 
Christianity.  It  is  evident  that  this  epistle,  like  all  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  grew  out  of  practical  needs.  The  author,  in  his  spirit 
and  theme,  reminds  us  in  many  ways  of  the  old  Hebrew  prophet  Amos. 
He  evidently  had  a  warm  heart,  but  an  exceedingly  brusque  exterior. 
He  was  so  intent  upon  making  his  points  that  he  did  not  stop  to  pre- 
sent the  other  side  of  the  truth  which  he  was  emphasizing.  In  the 
days  of  Amos  religion  had  been  interpreted  as  mere  conformity  to 
certain  ceremonial  rites.  When  the  epistle  of  James  was  written 
the  danger  that  threatened  Christianity  was  that  faith  might  be  in- 
terpreted narrowly  as  the  mere  acceptance  of  certain  doctrines,  or  as 
nominal  allegiance  to  its  Founder,  or  as  the  sharing  of  certain  mystical 
experiences  which  failed  to  transform  the  individual  character  or  to 
lead  to  right  acts.  Christianity,  like  Judaism  and  all  great  religions, 
faced  this  peril  at  the  end  of  the  first  Christian  century,  even  as  it  has 
at  many  later  periods  in  its  history.  In  sounding  a  sharp  note  of 
warning,  this  otherwise  unknown  James  has  made  a  large  contribution 

285 


THE  CHRISTIAN  WISDOM  IN  JAMES 

to  Christianity.  In  his  interpretation  of  the  principles  of  Jesus  he 
undoubtedly  was  not  the  equal  of  Paul.  The  great  apostle  declared 
that  the  first  and  absolute  essential  in  the  Christian  life  was  to  estab- 
lish an  intimate,  spiritual  fellowship  with  God.  At  the  same  time,  he 
always  affirmed  that  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit,  that  is,  of  that  genuinely 
spiritual  fellowship  with  God  which  he  described  as  faith,  were  the  only 
certain  proofs  that  a  man  had  this  faith.  These  are  precisely  the 
characteristics  and  the  acts  for  which  the  author  of  James  was  con- 
tending. As  we  have  seen,  Paul  devoted  nearly  as  much  attention  to 
describing  and  emphasizing  these  fruits  of  the  Spirit  as  he  did  to  his 
analysis  of  the  individual  spiritual  experience  of  which  they  were  but 
the  external  evidence. 

The  author  of  James  was  the  forerunner  of  the  modern  ethical-cul- 
ture movement.  In  his  emphasis  on  personal  dependence  upon  God 
and  of  unwavering  faith  he  also  laid  a  sound  foundation  for  morals; 
but  he  lacked  the  profound  spiritual  experience  of  the  great  apostle 
to  the  Gentiles  and  therefore  the  power  to  interpret  Christianity  as  a 
whole  rather  than  in  its  parts.  His  epistle  is  not,  however,  as  Luther 
asserted,  "an  epistle  of  straw."  It  is  a  noble  and  practical  homily 
on  a  text  which  Jesus  himself  propounded:  "By  their  fruits  you  shall 
know  them."  It  was  a  strong  protest  against  the  tendencies  which 
during  the  Middle  Ages  obscured  the  real  essence  of  Christianity.  It 
is  a  protest  to  which  Christianity  in  the  present  age  is  listening  with 
results  which  are  most  practicable  and  commendable.  At  the  same 
time,  it  is  equally  important  to  remember  that  the  epistle  of  James 
presents  not  all  but  only  a  part  of  Christianity. 

V.  The  Democracy  of  the  Epistle  of  James.  The  historical 
student  of  religion  naturally  classifies  many  of  the  tendencies  in  the 
epistle  of  James  as  Ebionite.  Its  denunciation  of  riches,  its  disparage- 
ment of  worldly  wisdom,  and  its  emphasis  on  deeds  of  mercy  are  all 
characteristic  tenets  of  that  Palestinian  Christian  sect.  But  they  are 
not  due  to  the  influence  of  a  particular  sect.  They  are  the  natural 
corollaries  of  the  great  social  principles  laid  down  by  Jesus.  Like 
Paul,  its  author  was  seeking  to  define  the  duties  of  citizens  in  the  King- 
dom of  God.  The  book  of  James  is  the  most  democratic  of  all  the 
New  Testament  writings  except  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke, 
which  present  most  fully  the  teachings  of  the  Master.  Simply  and 
concretely  James  interprets  into  every-day  life  Jesus'  social  teachings 
and  acts,  which  acknowledge  no  superiority  except  that  established  by 
service.    The  resentment  which  he  feels  toward  the  rich  who  defraud 

286 


ITS  DEMOCRACY 

those  who  labor  for  them  is  closely  akin  to  Jesus'  hot  indignation 
against  the  grafting  high  priests  who  in  legalized  ways  were  putting 
their  hands  in  the  pockets  of  the  poor.  His  vivid  picture  of  the  defer- 
ence paid  to  the  rich  and  the  neglect  shown  to  the  poor  brother  (21-9) 
is  unfortunately  not  entirely  inapplicable  to  certain  Christian  churches 
to-day.  If  the  epistle  of  James  had  not  found  a  place  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment real  Christianity  would  never  have  been  committed  so  absolutely 
and  irrevocably  to  practical  democracy.  It  is  not  "an  epistle  of  straw/' 
but  of  practical  power,  for  it  contributes  many  important  details  to 
the  plan  of  the  ideal  community,  the  establishment  of  which  is  the 
goal  of  Christianity. 

§CLXK.    THE  RULE  OF  LOVE  IN  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN 

CHURCH 

That  you  may  share  our  fellowship,  we  now  declare  to  The 
you  that  which  existed  from  the  very  beginning,  which  JSE*8" 
we  have  heard  and  which  we  have  seen  with  our  eyes  and  feuow- 
touched  with  our  own  hands,  namely,  the  Word  of  Life,  a  p 
The  Life  has  appeared  and  we  saw  it  and  bear  witness  and  {?§n 
announce  to  you  that  eternal  Life  which  was  with  the  Father 
and  was  manifested  to  us.    And  our  fellowship  is  with  the 
Father  and  with  his  Son  Jesus  Christ.    And  we  are  writing 
these  things  that  our  own  joy  may  be  complete. 

This  is  the  message  which  we  heard  from  the  Lord  The  s 
Jesus  and  now  announce  to  you:  God  is  light  and  in  him  gj^ 
there  is  no  darkness  at  all.    If  we  say,  We  have  fellow-  oftws 
ship  with  him  while  we  walk  in  darkness,  we  are  lying  s!upW~ 
and  do  not  act  sincerely;  but  if  we  walk  in  the  light,  as  he  (619)  ' 
is  in  the  light,  we  have  fellowship  with  one  another,  and  the 
blood  of  Jesus  his  Son  cleanses  us  from  every  sin.    If  we 
say  we  have  no  sin,  we  are  deceiving  ourselves  and  the 
truth  is  not  in  us.    If  we  confess  our  sins,  he  is  so  faithful 
and  just  that  he  forgives  our  sins  and  cleanses  us  from  all 
unrighteousness.    If  we  say  we  have  not  sinned,  we  make 
him  a  liar  and  his  word  is  not  in  us. 

My  dear  children,  I  am  writing  this  to  you  that  you  may  The 
not  sin;  but  if  anyone  does  sin,  we  have  an  advocate  with  JSsai 
the  Father  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  righteous.    He  himself  is  gjv- 
an  atoning  sacrifice  for  our  sins,  though  not  for  ours  alone  (if *> 
but  also  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world. 

287 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

The  And  by  this  we  may  be  sure  that  we  know  him — if  we 

dln'ce     0Dev  his  commands.    He  who  says,  I  know  him,  but  does 

of  be-     not  obey  his  commands  is  a  liar  and  the  truth  is  not  in  him. 

cms-    But  whoever  obeys  his  word,  in  him  love  for  God  has  really 

(£jf       reached  perfection.    By  this  means  we  may  be  sure  that 

we  are  in  him;  whoever  says  he  remains  in  him  ought  him- 

self  to  walk  even  as  he  walked. 

of  Beloved,  I  am  not  writing  you  any  new  command,  but  an 

£!"£    old  command  which  you  have  had  from  the  beginning: 

the       the  old  command  is  the  word  which  you  have  heard.    And 

(7?u)      yet  I  am  writing  you  a  new  command,  which  is  realized 

in  him  and  also  in  you,  for  the  darkness  is  passing  away 

and  the  true  light  is  already  shining.    He  who  says  he  is 

in  the  light  but  hates  his  brother  is  still  in  darkness.    He 

who  loves  his  brother  remains  in  the  light,  and  in  the  light 

there  is  no  stumbling  block.    But  he  who  hates  his  brother 

is  in  darkness,  he  is  walking  in  darkness  and  does  not 

know  where  he  is  going,  for  the  darkness  is  blinding  his 

eyes. 

The  My  dear  children,  I  am  writing  to  you  because  for  his 

J££_      sake  your  sins  are  forgiven.    Fathers,  I  am  writing  to  you 

mand     because  you  know  him  who  has  been  from  the  very  be- 

(if2.?3Te   ginning.    Young  men,  I  am  writing  to  you  because  you  have 


15-17 


conquered  the  evil  one.    Children,  I  have  written  to  you 

because  you  know  the  Father.    Love  not  the  world  nor 

the  things  in  the  world.    If  anyone  loves  the  world,  love 

for  the  Father  is  not  in  him.    For  all  that  is  in  the  world, 

the  cravings  of  the  flesh  and  the  cravings  of  the  eyes  and 

the  vainglory  of  life,  belongs  not  to  the  Father  but  to  the 

world.    And  the  world  with  its  cravings  is  passing  away, 

but  he  who  does  the  will  of  God  remains  forever. 

God's  1       See  wnat  a  marvelous  love  the  Father  hath  bestowed  upon 

love      us  in  letting  us  be  called  the  children  of  God!    And  that 

b°sward  we  are.    For  this  reason  the  world  does  not  recognize  us: 

dren      because  it  has  not  known  him.    Beloved,  we  are  now  chil- 

(31-3)      dren  of  God,  but  what  we  are  to  be  has  not  been  revealed. 

We  do  know  that  when  Christ  appears,  we  shall  be  like  him, 

for  we  shall  see  him  as  he  is.      And  everyone  who  has  this 

hope  fixed  on  him  keeps  himself  pure  just  as  he  is  pure. 

Anyone  who  is  born  of  God  does  not  commit  sin,  for  a 

288 


THE  CHRISTIANS'  LOVE  FOR  THEIR  BROTHERS 

divine  seed  remains  in  him  and  he  cannot  sin  because  he  Their 
is  born  a  child  of  God.    By  this  the  children  of  God  and  \°™ 
the  children  of  the  devil  are  recognized :  anyone  who  does  Jjj*rh_ 
not  do  right  is  not  a  child  of  God  nor  is  he  who  does  not  er° 
love  his  brother.    For  this  is  tfco  message  you  have  heard  i'^' 
from  the  very  beginning,  that  you  are  to  love  one  another. 
Do  not  wonder,  brothers,  that  the  world  hates  you.    We 
know  that  we  have  passed  over  from  death  to  life  because 
we  love  our  brothers.    He  who  has  no  love  remains  in 
death.    Anyone  who  hates  his  brother  is  a  murderer,  and 
you  know  that  no  murderer  has  eternal  life  remaining  in 
him. 

We  know  what  love  is  by  this,  that  Christ  laid  down  his  The 
life  for  us;  so  we  ought  to  lay  down  our  lives  for  the  Srtof 
brothers.    But  if  anyone  has  this  world's  wealth  and  sees  g^s- 
his  brother  in  need  and  restrains  his  sympathy  for  him,  how  love 
can  love  for  God  remain  in  him.    My  children,  let  us  show  (l'18) 
our  love  not  in  words  nor  with  lips  only,  but  by  deed  and 
sincerity. 

Beloved,  let  us  love  one  another  for  love  comes  from  God  God  is 
and  everyone  who  loves  is  born  of  God  and  knows  God.  ^T5o) 
He  who  does  not  love,  does  not  know  God,  for  God  is  love. 
God's  love  for  us  has  been  manifested  by  his  sending  his 
only  Son  into  the  world  that  through  him  we  might  live. 
Love  consists  in  this,  not  in  our  love  for  him  but  in  his  love 
for  us  and  in  his  sending  his  Son  to  be  an  atoning  sacrifice 
for  our  sins. 

Beloved,  since  God  so  loved  us,  then  we  ought  to  love  The 
one  another.    No  one  has  ever  seen  God;  but  if  we  love  v*°°f3 
one  another,  then  God  remaineth  in  us  and  the  love  for  him  g**'^ 
is  perfect  within  us.    By  this  we  know  that  we  remain  in  i£In 
him  and  he  remaineth  in  us  because  he  hath  given  us  a  (1121) 
portion  of  his  own  Spirit.    And  we  have  seen  and  bear  wit- 
ness that  the  Father  hath  sent  the  Son  as  a  Saviour  of  the 
world.    Whoever  confesses  that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God, 
God  remaineth  in  him  and  he  remains  in  God,  and  we  our- 
selves know  the  love  God  hath  for  us  and  we  believe  in  it. 
God  is  love,  and  he  who  remains  in  love  remains  in  God 
and  God  remaineth  in  him.    Love  is  perfect  with  us  when 
we  have  full  confidence  about  the  day  of  judgment,  for  we 

289 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

are  just  as  he  is  in  respect  to  this  world.  In  love  there  is 
no  fear.  Instead  of  that,  perfect  love  drives  out  all  fear,  for 
fear  has  to  do  with  punishment;  he  who  fears  has  not  at- 
tained perfect  love.  We  love  because  he  first  loved  us. 
If  anyone  declares,  I  love  God  and  yet  hates  his  brother, 
he  is  a  liar;  for  he  who  does  not  love  his  brother  whom  he 
has  seen,  cannot  love  God  whom  he  has  never  seen.  And 
we  have  this  command  from  him,  that  he  who  loves  God 
is  to  love  his  brother  also. 

The  The  Christians  know  and  trust  God,  the  Creator  of  heaven 

feiiow?  an<i  earth  in  whom  are  all  things  and  from  whom  are  all 
ship  of   things,  and  who  hath  no  other  God  beside  him.    From  him 
eariy      they  have  received  the  commandments  which  they  have 
tSST    engraved  on  their  minds  and  keep  in  the  hope  and  ex- 
0Apof   pectation  of  the  world  to  come.    Therefore  they  do  not 
ahs-     commit  adultery  nor  fornication;  they  do  not  bear  false 
i5)es     witness;  they  do  not  deny  what  has  been  deposited  with 
them,  nor  covet  what  is  not  theirs.    They  honor  father 
and  mother  and   show  kindness  to   their  neighbors.    If 
they  are  judges,  they  judge  uprightly.    They  do  not  wor- 
ship idols  made  in  human  form,  and  whatever  they  do  not 
wish  that  others  should  do  to  them,  they  do  not  to  others. 
They  do  not  eat  of  food  offered  to  idols  because  they  are 
undefiled.    They   placate    those    who   oppress   them   and 
make  them  their  friends;  they  do  good  to  their  enemies. 
Their  wives  are  absolutely  pure  and  their  daughters  modest. 
Their   men   abstain   from  every   unlawful   marriage    and 
from  all  impurity  in  the  hope  of  future  recompense.    If 
any  of  them  have  bondmen,  bondwomen  or  children,  they 
persuade  them  to  become  Christians  for  the  love  that  they 
have  towards  them;  and  when  they  become  so  they  call 
them  without  distinction,  brothers.    They  do  not  worship 
strange  gods.    They  walk  in  all  humility  and  kindness, 
and  falsehood  is  not  found  among  them.    They  love  one  an- 
other.   They  do  not  refuse  to  help  the  widows.    They  res- 
cue the  orphan  from  him  who  does  him  violence.    He  who 
has  gives  ungrudgingly  to  him  who  has  not.    If  they  see  a 
stranger,  they  take  him  to  their  dwellings  and  rejoice  over 
him  as  over  a  real  brother;  for  they  do  not  call  themselves 

290 


LIFE  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIANS 

brothers  after  the  flesh  but  after  the  Spirit  and  in  God. 
When  one  of  their  poor  passes  from  the  world,  any  one  of 
them  who  sees  it  provides  for  his  burial  according  to  his 
ability.  And  if  they  hear  that  any  one  of  their  number  is 
in  prison  or  oppressed  for  the  name  of  their  Messiah,  all 
of  them  provide  for  his  needs.  And  if  it  is  possible  to  re- 
deem him,  they  deliver  him.  If  any  one  among  them  is 
poor  and  needy  and  they  do  not  have  food  to  spare,  they 
fast  two  or  three  days  that  they  may  supply  him  with  the 
necessary  food.  They  scrupulously  observe  the  commands 
of  their  Messiah.  They  live  honestly  and  soberly  as  the 
Lord  their  God  commanded  them.  Every  morning  and 
every  hour  they  thank  and  praise  God  for  his  loving  kind- 
nesses toward  them;  and  for  their  food  and  drink  they  give 
thanks  to  him.  If  any  righteous  man  among  them  passes 
from  this  world,  they  rejoice  and  give  thanks  to  God,  and 
they  escort  his  body  as  if  he  were  setting  out  on  a  journey 
from  one  place  to  another.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  see 
that  one  of  their  number  has  died  in  his  ungodliness  or  in 
his  sins,  they  weep  bitterly  and  sigh  as  over  one  who  is 
about  to  go  to  punishment. 

As  men  who  know  God,  they  ask  from  him  what  is  proper  The 
for  him  to  give  and  for  them  to  receive.    Thus  they  do  £bSU6" 
throughout  their  entire  life.    And  inasmuch  as  they  acknowl-  <*  the 
edge  the  loving  kindnesses  of  God  toward  them,  lo,  because  ofethe 
of  them,  there  flows  forth  all  the  beauty  that  is  in  the  world !  §jjjf" 
But  the  good  deeds  which  they  do,  they  do  not  proclaim  a*) 
in  the  ears  of  the  multitude,  but  they  take  care  that  no  one 
shall  perceive  them.    They  hide  their  gift  as  one  who  has 
found  a  treasure  hides  it.    Thus  they  labor  to  become 
righteous  as  those  who  expect  to  see  their  Messiah  and  to 
receive  from  him  the  glorious  fulfillment  of  the  promises 
made  to  them.     Truly  this  is  a  new  people  and  there  is 
something  divine  in  them! 

I.  The  Aim  and  Thought  of  I  John.  First  John  occupies  a 
unique  place  among  the  New  Testament  writings.  Although  one  of 
the  latest,  it  presents  in  simplest  form  the  essence  of  Christianity.  In 
its  literary  character  and  in  its  conception  of  Jesus  and  his  work,  it  is 
closely  related  to  Hebrews.    While  it  is  nominally  an  epistle,  it  is  in 

291 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

reality  a  brief  homily,  containing  a  series  of  meditations  and  exhor- 
tations. In  its  loosely  connected  structure,  in  its  epigrammatic  style, 
and  in  its  profound  emphasis  on  life  and  deeds,  as  well  as  upon  belief, 
it  is  closely  akin  to  the  book  of  James.  The  reader  also  recognizes 
many  echoes  of  Paul's  distinctive  teachings.  All  non-essentials,  how- 
ever, are  cast  aside  and  the  eternal  principle  of  love,  first  clearly  pro- 
claimed by  the  prophet  Hosea,  and  declared  by  Jesus  to  be  the  supreme 
motive  power  in  religion  and  morals,  is  given  the  central  place.  What 
the  earlier  prophets  and  Jesus  had  assumed,  the  author  plainly  states, 
namely,  that  God  is  love.  The  logic  that  underlies  I  John  is  simple 
and  compelling:  love,  being  the  chief  attribute  of  God,  is  the  supreme 
force  in  the  universe.  It  inspired  Jesus  to  do  that  saving  work  for 
men  which  is  the  highest  expression  of  divine  love.  True  love  for 
God  begets  love  for  men.  It  is  this  love  which  overcomes  all  fear,  all 
hatred,  and  even  the  power  of  sin  and  death,  and  binds  together  God, 
the  individual,  and  mankind  into  one  divine  fellowship.  The  author 
of  I  John  clearly  states  in  his  opening  paragraph  that  his  purpose  is 
to  enable  his  readers  to  enjoy  that  divine  fellowship  which  has  been 
made  possible  through  the  self-sacrificing  work  of  Jesus.  He  also 
aims  to  guard  them  against  certain  Docetic  teachings,  which  led  to  a 
practical  denial  of  Jesus'  human  existence  (42- 3)  and  substituted  for 
the  simple  belief  in  the  Friend  and  Teacher  of  mankind  a  vague,  meta- 
physical mysticism.  In  the  concluding  notes  (513)  he  reasserts  his 
dominant  aim:  "I  have  written  in  this  way  to  you  who  believe  in  the 
Son  of  God,  that  you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  eternal  life."  It  was, 
therefore,  to  promote  love  and  trust  and  fellowship  among  the  followers 
of  Jesus  that  this  wonderful  homily  was  committed  to  writing  and  sent 
forth  as  a  tract. 

II.  The  Authorship  and  Date  of  I  John.  The  bonds  which 
bind  together  this  epistle  and  the  Fourth  Gospel  are  both  many  and 
close.  In  each  the  point  of  view  is  that  of  eternity,  rather  than  any 
specific  moment  in  history.  Each  was  inspired  by  a  practical,  evan- 
gelical aim.  That  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  plainly  stated  in  2031:  it  is 
"that  you  may  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  and 
that  believing  you  may  have  life  in  his  name."  The  Fourth  Gospel 
is  apparently  addressed  to  both  believers  and  unbelievers,  while  I  John 
is  an  intimate  message  to  those  who  have  already  felt  the  love  of  God 
inspired  by  Jesus.  Both  writings  come  from  a  mystic  who  regards 
the  facts  of  history  and  ordinary  experience  as  but  symbols  of  deeper, 
spiritual  realities.    To  him  the  material  world,  with  its  pomps  and  its 

292 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE  OF  I  JOHN 

passions,  is  but  a  passing  panorama.  He  who  does  the  will  of  God  is 
the  only  abiding  factor  in  the  phenomena  of  human  life.  Many  strik- 
ing phrases  also  bind  together  these  two  writings  (e.  g.t  "to  walk  in  the 
light,"  or,  "in  darkness,"  "to  be  born  of  God,"  "to  do  the  truth,"  and 
"God  is  light").  There  are  also  equally  striking  points  of  difference. 
For  example,  the  epistle  does  not  use  the  Old  Testament,  while  the  gos- 
pel does  so  frequently.  In  the  epistle  man's  relation  to  God  is  direct, 
while  in  the  gospel  it  is  through  Christ.  In  one  the  thesis  is  that  the 
Christ  is  Jesus,  in  the  other  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ.  While  these 
points  of  contact  and  difference  may  not  point  to  absolute  identity  of 
authorship,  they  can  be  explained  only  on  the  hypothesis  that  both 
writings  come  from  the  same  school  and  are  inspired  by  the  same 
deeply  spiritual  mind.  The  maturity  of  the  thought  points  to  a  rela- 
tively late  period  in  the  apostolic  age.  The  absence  of  any  references 
to  persecution  suggests  that  they  come  from  the  brief  but  bright  period 
between  the  persecution  of  Domitian,  which  ended  in  96,  and  the 
reign  of  Trajan,  which  began  in  98.  At  least  a  date  very  close  to  the 
beginning  of  the  second  Christian  century  fully  satisfies  all  the  impli- 
cations of  I  John.  The  author,  like  that  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  reveals 
the  influence  of  the  Alexandrian  type  of  thought.  He  identifies  Jesus 
with  the  Logos  or  Word  of  Life,  eternal  and  ever  existent  with  God, 
yet  incarnated  so  that  he  was  seen  with  the  eyes  and  touched  by  the 
hands  of  his  followers.  Here  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  the 
Jewish  belief  in  a  pre-existent  Messiah,  and  the  Christian  memories  of 
the  historic  Jesus  blend.  In  the  light  of  the  oldest  historic  evidence,  it 
is  probable  that  not  John,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  who,  the  earliest  tra- 
ditions state,  was  martyred  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century,  but 
John,  the  presbyter  of  Ephesus,  speaks  to  us,  if  not  through  his  own 
pen,  through  that  of  one  of  his  faithful  followers.  If  this  generally 
accepted  conclusion  of  modern  scholarship  be  true,  we  probably  have 
here  not  merely  the  richly  spiritual  message  of  a  later  Christian  writer, 
but  a  luminous  reflection  of  the  teachings  of  the  Master  himself. 

III.  The  Personality  back  of  the  Johannine  Writings.  John, 
the  presbyter  of  Ephesus,  was  in  all  probability  "the  beloved  dis- 
ciple," who,  according  to  the  gospel  that  bears  his  name,  was  inti- 
mately associated  with  Jesus  during  the  closing  days  of  his  ministry. 
He  is  described  in  the  epilogue  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  (2124)  as,  "the 
disciple  who  bears  testimony  to  these  facts  and  who  wrote  them  down; 
his  testimony  we  know  is  true."  It  is  significant  that  the  early  Chris- 
tian writer,  Papias,  also  calls  this  John,  the  presbyter,  a  disciple  of 

293 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

Jesus,  even  though  he  was  not  one  of  the  Twelve.  The  brief  letters 
known  as  II  John  and  III  John  come  directly  from  his  hand.  The 
first  is  a  friendly  note  of  warning,  sent  to  an  important  Christian  com- 
munity (addressed  as  "the  elect  lady  and  her  children")  which  the 
presbyter  hopes  in  the  near  future  to  visit  personally.  The  warning 
is  directed  against  certain  travelling  preachers  who  are  advocating 
Docetic  teachings  similar  to  those  referred  to  in  I  John  42,  3.  Third 
John  is  a  private  letter  to  Gaius,  who  was  probably  a  member  of  the 
same  community  to  which  the  letter  in  II  John  was  sent.  It  reveals 
the  fact  that  another  leader  of  the  Christian  church,  Diotrephes,  had 
refused  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  presbyter  and  had  threat- 
ened to  excommunicate  Gaius.  It  is  clear  that  both  of  these  letters 
were  written  by  one  accustomed  to  exercise  authority  over  the  local 
Christian  communities.  He  is  strenuous  for  the  truth  which  has 
evidently  crystallized  in  his  mind  into  a  definite  body  of  doctrines. 
Thus  he  speaks  in  II  John  2  of  "the  truth  which  remains  within  us  and 
will  be  with  us  forever."  But  the  dominant  note  in  all  this  thinking, 
as  in  I  John,  is  love:  "It  is  the  command  which  we  have  had  from  the 
very  beginning — 'Let  us  love  one  another.'  To  live  by  his  commands, 
that  is  what  love  means.  And  the  command  is,  'Live  in  love  as  you 
have  learned  to  do  from  the  beginning/" 

The  personality  revealed  in  these  letters  is  that  of  an  old  man  who 
calls  the  members  of  the  community  under  his  care  "children,"  and 
who  can  remember  the  historic  beginnings  of  their  faith.  He,  therefore, 
speaks  with  the  authority  of  one  who  had  personally  heard  the  com- 
mands of  the  Master.  These  implications  correspond  to  the  beautiful 
portrait  preserved  in  a  fourth-century  tradition,  recounted  by  Jerome 
in  his  commentary  on  Galatians:  "When  the  holy  evangelist,  John, 
had  lived  to  extreme  old  age  in  Ephesus,  he  could  be  carried  only  with 
difficulty  by  the  hands  of  the  disciples,  and  as  he  was  not  able  to  pro- 
nounce more  words,  he  was  accustomed  to  say  at  every  assembly: 
'Little  children,  love  one  another.'  At  length  the  disciples  and  brothers, 
being  tired  of  hearing  always  the  same  thing,  said:  'Master,  why  do 
you  always  say  this?'  Thereupon  John  gave  an  answer  worthy  of 
himself:  'Because  this  is  the  command  of  the  Lord,  and  if  it  is  observed, 
then  it  is  enough.'  " 

The  John  who  is  revealed  in  this  tradition,  and  especially  through 
the  three  epistles  and  the  gospel  which  bear  his  name  and  the  im- 
print of  his  profound  thinking,  has  a  distinct  and  consistent  personality. 
Even  though  we  know  practically  nothing  about  the  details  of  his 

294 


THE  PERSONALITY  OF  JOHN 

life,  he  must  be  counted  with  Peter  and  Paul  as  one  of  the  three  great 
forces  in  the  apostolic  church.  The  influence  of  the  Alexandrian 
Greek  atmosphere  amidst  which  he  spent  at  least  his  later  years  may 
be  recognized  not  only  in  his  free  use  of  allegory  but  also  in  his  peculiar 
type  of  thought.  He  has  much  in  common  with  Philo  of  Alexandria, 
who  interpreted  the  thought  of  the  Greek  philosophers  in  the  light  of  his 
Jewish  inheritance.  When  John  declared  in  the  prologue  of  his  gos- 
pel, "In  the  beginning  the  Logos  (or  Word)  was  with  God,"  he  spoke 
as  a  Jew,  familiar  with  the  personification  of  Wisdom  in  Proverbs  S22. 
When  he  declared  that  "the  Logos  was  God,"  he  echoed  a  familiar 
Stoic  teaching.  The  two  great  teachers,  however,  who  influenced 
John  and  his  disciples  most  were  Paul  and  Jesus.  He  fully  accepted, 
for  example,  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  eternal,  pre-existent  Christ,  and  of 
his  exaltation  in  the  presence  of  the  Father  and  the  belief  that  he  was 
to  come  again  to  judge  the  world.  He  also  reasserted  Paul's  great 
principle  of  Christian  liberty  through  Christ.  In  his  allegory  of  the 
vine  and  its  branches  he  taught  Paul's  social  ideal  of  the  "Body  of 
Christ."  From  both  Jesus  and  Paul  he  drew  his  central  teaching  that 
love  is  the  ruling  principle  in  the  universe  and  that  service  for  the 
Christian  community  is  the  only  valid  basis  of  reward.  In  all  of  his 
writings  he  is  evidently  combating  on  the  one  side  the  belief  that 
Jesus  was  nothing  more  than  a  great  teacher  and  prophet,  and  on  the 
other  the  fatal  tendency  to  deny  altogether  Jesus'  humanity.  The 
Fourth  Gospel  asserts  in  strongest  terms  Jesus'  divinity  and  seeks  to 
establish  it  by  seven  great  signs  of  which  the  account  of  the  raising 
of  Lazarus  is  the  culmination.  At  the  same  time  it  emphasizes  Jesus' 
human  side:  his  hunger,  his  weariness,  his  changing  emotions,  and  his 
warm  personal  affection  for  his  disciples.  Thus  John  established  the 
identity  of  the  exalted  Christ,  which  Paul  and  the  other  apostles  revered, 
with  the  historical  Jesus  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  While  he  harmo- 
nized different  currents  of  Christian  thought  and  combated  others, 
John's  great  contribution  was  the  emphasis  which  he  placed  on  Chris- 
tian love  and  liberty  and  upon  service  for  the  universal  brotherhood, 
which  Jesus  gave  his  life  to  establish.  The  New  Testament  would  be 
incomplete  without  the  immortal  declaration  of  faith  contained  in  the 
words:  "God  is  Love.  God  so  loved  the  world  that  he  gave  his  only 
Son,  that  every  one  who  believes  in  him  might  not  perish  but  have 
eternal  life.     We  love  because  he  first  loved  us." 

IV.    The  Life  of  the  Early  Christians.     Aristides,  the  Athenian 
philosopher,  in  his  defense  of  the  Christians  before  the  Emperor  Ha- 

295 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

drian  (117-138),  has  given  a  remarkably  vivid  picture  of  the  life  of  the 
early  followers  of  Jesus.  It  is  a  picture  which  is  confirmed  and  supple- 
mented by  the  testimony  of  scores  of  contemporary  witnesses.  Christi- 
anity proved  an  open  door  of  hope  and  opportunity  not  only  to  the 
"lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel"  but  also  to  the  lost  sheep  of  the  pagan 
world.  Even  Celsus,  its  bitterest  enemy,  exclaims:  "What  sort  of 
people  do  the  Christians  invite  to  their  religious  rites  ?  'Any  one  who 
is  a  sinner,'  they  say,  'or  devoid  of  understanding,  or  simple-minded — 
in  short,  whoever  is  unfortunate  will  be  received  in  the  Kingdom  of 
God.'  "  To  the  despondent  sinner,  to  the  homeless  stranger,  to  the 
helpless  slave,  and  to  the  hopeless  outcast  Christianity  extended  the 
hand  of  fellowship  and  a  cordial  invitation  to  join  the  brotherhood 
of  those  who  were  living  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  and  teaching 
of  him  who  declare/1:  "One  is  your  Master,  and  you  all  are  brothers. 
Let  him  who  would  be  first  among  you  be  the  servant  of  all."  Brother- 
liness,  as  illustrated  in  the  life  of  the  early  Christian  church,  has  well 
been  defined  as  "love  on  a  footing  of  equality."  In  the  presence  of 
the  early  Christians  hostile  pagan  critics  were  forced  to  cry  out:  "Look, 
how  they  love  one  another ! "  All  this  varied  cloud  of  witnesses  bear 
testimony  that  primitive  Christianity  was  not  primarily  a  creed  but 
a  life  of  love  and  service.  Its  rites  were  very  simple.  Baptism  was 
conceived  of  as  a  bath  of  purification,  "to  restore  the  health  of  the 
soul,"  and  to  endue  the  individual  with  the  spirit  of  Jesus.  It  meant 
adoption  as  a  son  of  God  and  admission  into  the  Christian  fellowship 
which  Jesus  had  established.  During  the  first  century  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  the  evening  meal  which  each  local  community  shared  in 
common.  Not  until  the  days  of  Trajan  was  it  transferred  (as  a  re- 
sult of  the  imperial  decree)  to  the  morning  and  made  a  distinctly 
liturgical  act.  In  the  apostolic  church  it  symbolized  Jesus'  self-sacri- 
ficing, triumphant  service  for  his  followers.  It  was  also  the  expressive 
rite  which  bound  together  the  members  of  each  local  Christian  com- 
munity and  kept  forever  alive  within  them  their  Master's  spirit  of  love 
and  fellowship.  Prayers  were  spontaneous,  being  inspired  by  the  di- 
rect influence  of  the  Spirit.  Speaking  with  tongues  was  common. 
The  enthusiasm  begotten  by  the  consciousness  of  being  enlisted  in  a 
great  cause  stirred  all  hearts.  These  Christian  communities  were  also 
potent  educational  forces.  All  their  members  were  trained  by  con- 
stant practice,  as  well  as  by  precept,  to  govern  their  every  act  by  the 
spirit  of  love  and  loyalty  to  the  interests  of  the  great  brotherhood  and 
to  labor  for  its  extension  throughout  the  world. 

296 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIANS 

The  organization  of  these  communities  was  simple  and  for  practical 
service.  At  the  head  of  each  community  stood  the  bishop  who  di- 
rected its  religious  life  and  especially  its  work  for  the  sick  and  needy. 
Next  to  him,  as  the  responsible  directors  of  the  Christian  community, 
were  the  presbyters  or  elders.  Under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
bishop  were  the  deacons,  who  are  described  in  an  early  Christian  writ- 
ing as  "doers  of  good  works,  looking  after  all  by  day  and  by  night." 
In  another  Christian  writing  they  are  directed  "  to  act  as  eyes  for  the 
bishop,  carefully  inquiring  into  the  actions  of  every  church  member  .  .  . 
in  order  to  find  out  those  who  are  sick  in  the  flesh  and  to  bring  such  to 
the  notice  of  the  main  body,  who  know  nothing  of  them,  that  they  may 
visit  them  and  supply  their  wants."  In  the  early  church,  widows  were 
appointed  to  perform  the  services  which  later  devolved  upon  the 
deaconesses.  Thus  we  are  told  in  a  second-century  document  that 
"in  every  congregation  at  least  one  widow  is  to  be  appointed  to  take 
care  of  sick  women;  she  is  to  be  obliging  and  sober;  she  is  to  report 
cases  of  need  to  the  elders."  Definite  contributions  were  provided  for 
the  needy.  Justin  Martyr  in  his  Apology  (LXVII)  states:  "Those 
who  are  well-to-do  give  as  they  choose,  each  as  he  himself  purposes. 
The  collection  is  then  deposited  with  the  president,  who  succors  or- 
phans, widows,  those  who  are  in  want  owing  to  sickness  or  any  other 
cause,  those  who  are  in  prison,  and  strangers  who  are  on  a  journey." 
All  gifts  were  voluntary  and  were  simply  and  directly  applied  to  the 
needs  of  each  community. 

Not  every  Christian  proved  loyal  to  the  spirit  and  teachings  of  his 
Master,  but  every  effort  was  made  by  the  members  of  the  community 
to  care  for  its  morally  delinquent.  The  lofty  yet  practical  moral  ideals 
of  Jesus  and  Paul  were  constantly  held  up  before  them,  not  only 
through  the  words,  but  in  the  lives  of  their  fellow  Christians.  The 
second  chapter  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement,  which  was  written  to  the 
Corinthian  Christians  near  the  close  of  the  first  century,  bears  eloquent 
testimony  to  this  fact:  "Day  and  night  you  agonized  for  all  the  brother- 
hood, that  by  means  of  compassion  and  care  the  number  of  God's 
elect  might  be  saved.  You  were  sincere,  guileless,  and  void  of  malice 
among  yourselves.  Every  sedition  and  every  schism  was  an  abomi- 
nation to  you.  You  lamented  the  transgressions  of  your  neighbors 
and  judged  their  shortcomings  to  be  your  own." 

Visiting  Christians  were  entertained  for  three  or  four  days  as  guests 
of  the  local  community.  Then,  if  they  remained,  work  was  secured  for 
them.     Visiting  evangelists,  prophets,  and  laymen  bound  the  Christian 

297 


THE  CHRISTIAN  RULE  OF  LOVE 

communities  together  into  one  great  brotherhood.  These  bonds  were 
strengthened  by  the  exchange  of  letters  and  in  time  by  common  super- 
vision. The  Roman  church  ultimately  won  its  position  of  pre-emi- 
nence and  authority  through  its  kindly  reception  of  all  Christians  visit- 
ing the  Imperial  City  and  through  its  valuable  services  to  the  local 
Christian  communities  far  and  near.  Thus  Paul's  great  ideal  of  the 
unity  of  the  "Body  of  Christ"  was  in  a  measure  concretely  realized 
and  the  social  principles  of  Jesus  became  the  most  powerful  and  abid- 
ing forces  in  the  empire. 

V.  The  Essence  of  Christianity.  The  Apostolic  Age  is  pre- 
eminently significant  because  it  reveals  in  concrete,  historical  terms 
the  essence  of  Christianity.  Obviously,  it  is  not  a  system  of  dogmas, 
nor  a  complex  ecclesiastical  organization,  but  a  living  historic  move- 
ment. From  the  point  of  view  of  the  individual,  Christianity  is  not 
only  a  faith  but  an  attitude  and  a  way  of  living.  Objectively,  it  is  the 
expansion  of  the  unique  brotherhood  which  Jesus  established  during 
his  Galilean  ministry.  It  is  the  community  of  those  who,  under  the 
impulse  of  his  teaching  and  example,  recognize  God  as  their  Father 
and  all  men  as  brothers.  It  is  a  world-wide  fraternity  of  men  and 
women,  young  and  old,  who,  in  their  loyalty  to  God  and  in  their  ser- 
vice for  their  fellows,  are  being  socially  and  morally  redeemed.  It  is 
a  movement  which,  during  the  first  century,  spread  throughout  the 
world  unfettered  by  creeds  or  rules  or  complex  organization  and, 
therefore,  free  to  adapt  itself  to  the  varied  needs  of  humanity.  The 
heroic  death  of  Jesus,  instead  of  destroying  this  brotherhood,  trans- 
ferred its  centre  to  Jerusalem.  There  his  invincible  faith,  his  divine 
enthusiasm,  and  his  burning  zeal  to  redeem  and  serve  humanity  so 
inspired  his  followers  that  their  numbers  increased  with  incredible 
rapidity.  Persecution  only  fanned  the  flame  of  love  and  loyalty  into 
a  conflagration  that  scattered  its  firebrands  throughout  the  great  cities 
of  the  empire.  The  love  and  zeal  of  the  scattered  disciples  quickly 
attracted  others  to  this  divine  brotherhood,  so  that  before  the  genera- 
tion which  had  felt  the  immediate  touch  of  Jesus'  personality  had 
passed  away,  a  chain  of  Christian  communities  extended  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Rome.  Each  citizen  of  this  new  commonwealth,  that  had 
suddenly  sprung  into  existence,  felt  himself  bound  to  every  other 
member  by  the  bonds  of  love  and  common  endeavor.  Fraternal  co- 
operation took  the  place  of  hostile  competition.  The  will  of  God,  as 
interpreted  by  Jesus  and  the  divine  Spirit  within  them,  became  their 
supreme  rule  of  life.    Thus  in  a  large  measure  the  spiritual  and  social 

298 


THE  ESSENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

ideal,  which  Jesus  called  "the  Kingdom  of  God"  and  Paul  the  "Body 
of  Christ,"  became  in  the  Apostolic  Age  an  historic  reality.  In  the 
succeeding  centuries  many  influences  tended  to  arrest  Christianity's 
normal  development;  but  its  ideal  of  loving  fellowship  with  God  and 
of  complete  loyalty  to  the  perfect  community,  which  Jesus  aimed  to 
establish,  remains  for  the  individual  and  humanity  "the  way,  the  truth 
and  the  life." 


299 


APPENDIX 


A  PRACTICAL  REFERENCE  LIBRARY 

Books  for  Constant  Reference.  The  literature  on  the  Apostolic 
Age  is  exceedingly  voluminous.  Moffatt's  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  New  Testament  presents  in  easily  accessible  form  the  impor- 
tant bibliography  in  connection  with  the  New  Testament  books  and 
the  results  of  modern  critical  scholarship.  McGiffert's  Apostolic  Age 
remains  the  most  thoroughgoing  and  satisfactory  history  of  this  im- 
portant period.  The  general  student  will  find  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions in  Bacon's  Story  of  St.  Paul.  The  first  part  is  devoted  to  the 
history  of  Paul  and  the  second  part  to  a  discussion  of  the  contents  of 
his  letters.  Wood's  Life  and  Ministry  of  Paul,  the  Apostle,  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly compact,  well-proportioned  study  of  the  work  and  teachings 
of  the  great  apostle  in  the  light  of  their  historical  setting.  Ramsay's 
St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen  is  in  reality  a  historical  and 
geographical  commentary  on  the  records  of  Paul's  journeys  found  in 
the  book  of  Acts.  Upon  the  problems  which  these  narratives  present 
Professor  Ramsay  has  focused  the  results  of  his  important  investi- 
gations in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  Deissmann's  St.  Paul — A  Study 
in  Social  and  Religious  History  is  an  exceedingly  fresh  and  stimulating 
interpretation  of  Paul  not  only  in  the  light  of  his  geographical  but  also 
of  his  intellectual  and  religious  environment.  For  the  study  of  in- 
dividual books,  the  volumes  of  the  Century  Bible,  and  especially  the 
compact  yet  scholarly  commentaries  in  The  Bible  for  Home  and  School, 
are  reliable  and  usable.  For  more  detailed  study  the  volumes  of  the 
International  Critical  Commentaries  are  the  best  authorities. 

Additional  Books  of  Reference:  Introductions.  The  brief, 
compact  introductions  to  the  New  Testament  by  Peake  and  Bacon 
present  the  results  of  critical  yet  constructive  scholarship.  Julicher's 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  is  more  detailed  and  yet  is  exceed- 
ingly luminous  and  stimulating.  Harnack's  Acts  of  the  Apostles  contains 
a  minute  study  of  the  literary  structure  and  sources  of  Acts.    Even 

301 


APPENDIX 

though  the  facts  and  conclusions  here  presented  may  not  be  accepted 
by  the  reader,  they  are  exceedingly  suggestive.  The  monograph  by 
Torrey,  entitled  The  Aramaic  Source  in  the  Book  of  Acts,  throws  much 
new  light  upon  the  origin  and  historical  value  of  Luke's  great  epic  of 
conquering  Christianity.  Lake's  Earlier  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  deals  not 
only  with  the  critical  questions  presented  by  Paul's  major  epistles  but 
also  with  their  interpretation  and  harmonization  with  the  parallel 
records  contained  in  Acts.  In  his  Light  from  the  Ancient  East  Professor 
Deissmann  has  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  reader  a  wealth  of  con- 
temporary Greek  literature  and  archaeological  material  which  illumi- 
nates the  New  Testament  writings. 

Contemporary  Religions.  In  his  Evolution  of  Early  Christianity 
Professor  Case  has  presented  in  compact  but  masterly  form  the  differ- 
ent currents  of  religious  life  and  thought  amidst  which  Christianity 
developed  and  has  traced  their  influence  upon  Christian  thought 
during  the  formative  Apostolic  Age.  In  a  more  minute,  painstaking, 
and  yet  on  the  whole  less  satisfying  manner,  Clemen  deals  with  the 
same  problem  in  his  Primitive  Christianity  and  its  Non-Jewish  Sources. 
Kennedy  in  his  St.  Paul  and  the  Mystery  Religions  and  Gardner  in 
his  Religious  Experiences  of  St.  Paul  discuss  the  influence  of  Paul's 
religious  environment  upon  the  development  of  his  faith. 

Histories  of  the  Apostolic  Age.  Weizsacher's  The  Apostolic 
Age  and  the  Christian  Church  (I,  II)  presents  a  vivid  and  detailed  pic- 
ture of  the  development  of  the  early  church.  Bartlet's  The  Apostolic 
Age  is  a  well-proportioned  sketch  of  the  period.  Ropes's  Apostolic 
Age  is  not  a  complete  history  but  rather  a  discussion  of  certain  im- 
portant problems  and  phases  in  the  life  of  this  important  era.  It 
contains  many  valuable  suggestions  for  the  more  advanced  student. 
Scott's  The  Beginnings  of  the  Church  is  a  detailed  study  of  the  life 
of  the  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem  in  the  days  preceding  the 
work  of  Paul.  Ramsay,  in  his  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire,  presents 
the  larger  political  environment  of  Christianity.  Dobschiitz,  in  his 
Apostolic  Age,  treats  briefly  but  vividly  the  life  of  the  Christian  com- 
munities, beginning  with  the  death  of  Jesus  and  extending  down  into 
the  Post-Apostolic  Age.  This  volume  is  paralleled  by  his  larger  and 
more  detailed  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church.  This  volume 
contains  a  wealth  of  data  which  make  exceedingly  real  the  life  and 
problems  of  the  early  Christian  communities.  Similar  in  scope  and 
aim  is  Harnack's  Expansion  of  Christianity  (I,  II).  The  student  who 
desires  to  consult  the  extra-canonical  authorities  regarding  the  Apos- 

302 


APPENDIX 

tolic  and  Post-Apostolic  Age  will  find  a  careful  selection  of  the  more 
important  passages  in  Ayer's  Source  Book  for  Ancient  Church  History. 
Lives  of  Paul.  A  fascinating,  concise  sketch  of  the  personality 
and  thought  of  Paul,  written  from  a  critical  but  sympathetic  point  of 
view,  is  found  in  Wrede's  Paul.  Equally  critical,  but  in  many  respects 
more  satisfying,  is  Weinel's  St.  Paul — The  Man  and  His  Work.  Each 
of  these  writers  is  a  severe  yet  appreciative  critic  of  the  great  apostle. 
To  this  same  class  belongs  Clemen's  Paul,  His  Life  and  Work.  Two 
stimulating  volumes,  which  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  hotly  contested 
controversy  as  to  whether  Jesus  or  Paul  was  the  real  founder  of 
Christianity,  are  Meyer's  Jesus  or  Paul  and  Weiss's  Paul  and  Jesus. 
Jones,  in  his  Paul,  the  Orator,  discusses  at  length  the  forensic  side  of 
the  great  apostle's  activity.  Ramsay,  in  his  Cities  of  St.  Paul,  presents 
a  rich  abundance  of  historical  and  archaeological  data  regarding  the 
scenes  amidst  which  Paul  carried  on  his  epoch-making  missionary 
campaigns  in  Asia  Minor. 

II 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS  AND  SUBJECTS  FOR  SPECIAL 
RESEARCH 

The  General  Questions,  as  in  the  preceding  volumes,  follow  the 
main  divisions  of  the  book  and  aim  to  guide  the  student  in  collecting 
and  co-ordinating  the  more  important  facts  presented  in  the  biblical 
texts  or  in  the  notes. 

The  Subjects  for  Special  Research  are  intended  as  a  guide  for 
further  study  in  related  lines,  and  aim,  by  means  of  detailed  refer- 
ences, to  introduce  the  student  and  the  teacher  to  the  more  important 
passages  in  the  best  English  books  of  reference.  In  classroom  work 
many  of  these  topics  may  profitably  be  assigned  for  individual  research. 
The  references  are  to  pages,  unless  otherwise  indicated.  Ordinarily, 
several  parallel  references  are  given,  that  the  student  may  be  able  to 
utilize  the  book  at  hand. 

INTRODUCTION:  THE  RECORDS  AND  BACKGROUND  OF 
THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE 

I.    The  Records  of  the  Work  and  Teachings  of  the  Apostles. 

General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  duration  and  importance  of  the 
Apostolic  Age.     2.  The  historical  value  of  the  New  Testament  letters 

303 


APPENDIX 

and  epistles.  3.  Reasons  that  led  the  author  to  write  the  book  of  Acts. 
4.  Evidence  that  the  author  was  Luke,  the  physician.  5.  His  per- 
sonality and  equipment.  6.  Nature  of  the  sources  incorporated  in 
Acts  l1-^35.  7.  Historical  value  of  the  journal  of  travel  in  1635-2831. 
8.  Conclusions  regarding  the  historical  value  of  the  records  of  the 
Apostolic  Age. 

.  Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Luke's  use  of  medical  terms 
in  Acts.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  289, 290;  Harnack,  Luke  the  Physi- 
cian, 175-198;  Hobart,  The  Medical  Language  of  St  Paid.  2.  The 
historical  accuracy  of  Acts.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  304-8;  Light- 
foot,  Essay  on  "  Supernatural  Religions,"  291-302;  Ramsay,  Christian' 
ity  in  the  Roman  Empire,  chaps.  II-VIII. 

II.  The  Historical  and  Religious  Background  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Age.  General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  personality  and 
policy  of  each  of  the  Roman  emperors  from  Tiberius  to  Trajan.  2.  The 
ways  in  which  Rome  prepared  the  world  for  Christianity.  3.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Jews  of  Palestine  from  36  to  90  a.d.  4.  Compare  the  Jews  of 
Palestine  with  those  of  the  dispersion.  5.  Describe  the  ways  in  which 
the  Jews  attempted  to  win  the  heathen  to  Judaism.  6.  The  teachings 
of  Epicureanism,  Cynicism,  and  Stoicism.  7.  The  ideas  underlying 
emperor-worship,  and  their  significance  for  Christianity.  8.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  mystery-religions.  9.  The  social  and  religious  needs 
of  the  Roman  world. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  history  and  tenets  of 
Stoicism.  Case,  Evolution  of  Christianity,  267-283;  Article,  "Stoicism," 
in  Encyc.  Brit.  2.  Origin  of  the  Roman  emperor-worship.  Case, 
Evolution  of  Christianity,  195-222;  Deissmann,  Light  from  the  Ancient 
East,  342-384.  3.  Contemporary  mystery-religions.  Case,  Evolution  of 
Christianity,  284-330;  Cumont,  Oriental  Religions  in  Roman  Paganism; 
Mead,  Thrice  Greatest  Hermes;  Reitzenstein,  Poimandres;  Jacoby,  Die 
antiken  Mysterienreligionen  und  das  Christentum. 

PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY  IN  PALESTINE  AND  SYRIA 

§  CXLVI.    The  Origin  of  the  Jerusalem  Christian  Community. 

General  Questions:  1.  Why  did  Jesus'  followers  immediately  after 
his  death  make  Jerusalem  their  home?  2.  Describe  the  personnel  of 
the  Jerusalem  Christian  community.  3.  The  motives  that  led  the 
disciples  to  elect  Matthias.  4.  The  historical  and  traditional  ele- 
ments in  the  story  of  the  day  of  Pentecost.     5.  The  psychological  ex- 

304 


APPENDIX 

perience"  that  then  came  to  the  members  of  the  Jerusalem  commu- 
nity. 6.  The  central  ideas  in  Peter's  sermon.  7.  The  beliefs  of  the 
primitive  Christians. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Speaking  with  tongues  in  the 
early  Christian  church.  Scott,  The  Beginnings  of  the  Church,  57-83; 
Lake,  Earlier  Epistles  of  St.  Paid,  241-252;  Cutten,  Psych.  Phenomena 
of  Christianity,  37-59.  2.  The  use  of  the  title  "Lord."  Scott,  Begin- 
nings of  the  Church,  84-108;  Weiss,  Kurios.  3.  Mediaeval  and  modern 
faith-cures.    Cutten,  Psych.  Phenomena  of  Christianity,  196-231. 

§  CXLVII.  The  Life  of  the  Primitive  Christian  Community. 
General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  circumstances  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  healing  of  the  lame  man  in  the  temple.  2.  The  lead- 
ing ideas  in  Peter's  address  to  the  multitude.  3.  The  reasons  why 
the  apostles  were  arrested  and  the  basis  of  their  defense  before  the 
Sanhedrin.  4.  Economic  and  social  principles  governing  the  Chris- 
tian community  at  Jerusalem.  5.  The  sin  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira. 
6.  How  far  and  in  what  respects  was  the  community  at  Jerusalem  a 
local  realization  of  Jesus'  ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  ? 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  origin  and  history  of  the 
Ecclesia  or  Church.  Scott,  Beginnings  of  the  Church,  28-56;  Hastings, 
D.  B.,  I,  425,  426.  2.  Communistic  tendencies  in  early  Christianity. 
McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  66-70;  Dobschutz,  Christian  Life  in  the 
Prim.  Church,  143-6;  Rauschenbush,  Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis 
120-3. 

§CXLVIII.  The  Work  and  Death  of  Stephen.  General 
Questions:  1.  Why  did  Christianity  appeal  especially  to  the  Jews  of 
the  dispersion  ?  2.  Describe  the  reasons  which  led  to  the  appointment 
of  the  seven,  and  their  personnel.  3.  The  personality  of  Stephen. 
4.  The  subjects  discussed  by  him  with  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  5.  His 
attitude  toward  Judaism  and  his  claims  for  Christianity.  6.  His  con- 
tributions to  the  new  faith  through  his  teachings  and  martyrdom. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  religious  and  social  life 
of  the  Jewish  synagogue.  Hastings,  D.B.,  IV,  640-3;  Oesterley  and 
Box,  Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Synagogue.  2.  The  Jewish  proselyting 
movement.  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  157-160;  Dobschutz,  Life  in  the 
Primitive  Church,  160-7;  Harnack,  Expansion  of  Christianity,  I,  11-18; 
Thatcher,  The  Apostolic  Church,  19-33. 

§  CXLIX.  The  Expansion  of  Christianity  after  the  Death  of 
Stephen.  General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  effect  of  Stephen's 
martyrdom  upon  Jesus'  followers.    2.  The  personality  and  teachings 

305 


APPENDIX 

of  Philip  the  evangelist.  3.  The  results  and  limitations  of  his  work 
among  the  Samaritans.  4.  The  basis  and  significance  of  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch.  5.  The  steps  which  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  at  Antioch.  6.  The  historical  origin  of  the  term 
"Christian."  7.  The  nature  of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  8.  Influences  that  transformed  Peter's  attitude 
toward  the  Gentiles.  9.  The  permanent  contributions  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Christians  to  Christianity. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Antioch  at  the  middle  of  the 
first  Christian  century.  Hastings,  D.  B.,  I,  103,  104;  Ramsay,  Church 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  chaps.  II-VII.  2.  The  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.  Hastings,  D.  B.,  II,  359,  360;  Mathews,  Hist,  of  N.  T.  Times, 
181-7;  Schiirer,  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Div.  I,  II, 
150-165. 

PAUL'S  WORK  AND  TEACHINGS 

§  CL.  Paul's  Early  Training  and  Conversion.  General  Ques- 
tions: 1.  Describe  Paul's  physical  and  family  inheritance.  2.  His 
personal  characteristics.  3.  His  intellectual  and  religious  environment 
at  Tarsus.  4.  His  educational  opportunities  at  Jerusalem.  5.  The 
motives  that  led  him  to  persecute  the  followers  of  Jesus.  6.  The  dif- 
ferences and  points  of  agreement  in  the  four  accounts  of  his  conversion. 
7.  The  experience  that  made  him  a  devoted  follower  of  Jesus.  8.  The 
first  fifteen  years  of  his  missionary  activity.  9.  His  opportunities  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  situation  and  history  of 
Tarsus.  Wood,  Life  and  Ministry  of  Paul,  23-30;  Ramsay,  Cities  of  St. 
Paul,  85-244.  2.  Paul's  conversion.  Wood,  Life  and  Ministry  of 
Paul,  49-53;  Bacon,  Story  of  St.  Paul,  34-67;  Deissmann,  St.  Paul, 
115-124;  Gardner,  Religious  Experiences  of  St.  Paul,  20-56. 

§CLI.  Paul's  First  Missionary  Campaign.  General  Ques- 
tions: 1.  Significance  of  Paul's  year  of  work  with  the  Antioch  com- 
munity. 2.  The  reasons  why  he  and  Barnabas  set  out  on  their  first 
missionary  campaign.  3.  The  limitations  and  results  of  their  work  at 
Cyprus.  4.  Paul's  reasons  for  going  to  southern  Asia  Minor.  5.  The 
conditions  which  confronted  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  Galatian  Antioch. 
6.  Their  experiences  at  Iconium  and  Lystra.  7.  The  results  of  their 
first  campaign  in  Asia  Minor. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  situation  and  strategic 
importance  of  Galatian  Antioch.    En.  Bib.,  I,  184;  Ramsay,  Cities  of 

306 


APPENDIX 

St.  Paul,  247-295.     2.  The  situation  of  Iconium.    En.  Bib.,  II,  2144-6; 
Ramsay,  Cities  of  St.  Paul,  317-382. 

§  CLII.  The  Breaking  of  Jewish  Bonds.  General  Ques- 
tions: 1.  Why  did  the  missionary  campaign  of  Paul  and  Barnabas 
present  a  difficult  problem  to  the  Christian  church,  and  what  was  the 
nature  of  that  problem  ?  2.  Discuss  the  date  and  significance  of  Paul's 
conference  with  the  "pillar"  apostles  at  Jerusalem.  3.  Peter's  vac- 
illation in  regard  to  associating  with  Gentile  Christians.  4.  The  atti- 
tude of  the  Judaistic  party  in  the  church.  5.  The  proposed  com- 
promise. 6.  Paul's  contributions  to  the  ultimate  solution  of  the 
problem. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  chronology  of  Paul's 
life.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  62-64;  Hastings,  D.  B.,  I,  423-5; 
En.  Bib.,  I,  809-817;  Deissmann,  St.  Paul,  235-260.  2.  The  charges 
which  the  Jews  brought  against  the  Christians.  Case,  Evolution  of 
Christianity,  123-146;  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  192-211. 

§  CLIII.  Paul's  Second  Visit  and  Later  Letter  to  the  Churches 
of  Galatia.  General  Questions:  1.  Describe  Paul's  immediate  and 
ultimate  objective  in  his  second  missionary  campaign.  2.  The  com- 
munities to  which  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written.  3.  Its 
date  and  aim.  4.  Paul's  method  of  presenting  his  convictions.  5.  His 
estimate  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  Jewish  law  and  of  the  work 
of  Jesus.     6.  The  meaning  and  responsibilities  of  Christian  freedom. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  North  and  South  Galatian 
theories.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  90-101;  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age, 
178-181;  Ramsay,  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,  178-184.  2.  Date  of  Paul's 
letter  to  the  Galatians.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  101-6;  Ramsay,  St. 
Paul  the  Traveller,  189-192;  Lake,  Earlier  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  253-273. 

§CLIV.  Paul's  Missionary  Work  in  Macedonia.  General 
Questions:  1.  Describe  the  probable  reasons  why  Paul  did  not  at 
once  continue  his  work  in  Asia  Minor.  2.  The  psychological  antece- 
dents and  significance  of  his  vision  at  Troas.  3.  The  conditions  under 
which  he  worked  at  Philippi.  4.  The  results  of  his  work  there.  5.  Con- 
ditions at  Thessalonica.  6.  The  character  of  the  Christian  commu- 
nity which  he  there  established.  7.  The  significance  of  his  work  in 
Macedonia. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  nature  of  Paul's  visions. 
Weinel,  St.  Paul,  80-84;  Cutten,  Psych.  Phenomena  of  Christianity, 
60-70.  2.  The  situation  and  history  of  Philippi.  Hastings,  D.  B., 
Ill,  837;  En.  Bib.,  Ill,  3701-3. 

307 


APPENDIX 

§  CLV.     Paul's    Letters   to  the   Christians  at  Thessalonica. 

General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  general  structure  and  the  five 
distinctive  divisions  found  in  the  majority  of  Paul's  letters.  2.  The 
characteristics  and  the  charm  of  Paul's  literary  style.  3.  The  rea- 
sons why  Paul  wrote  his  first  letter  to  the  Thessalonians.  4.  Its 
structure.  5.  Its  leading  ideas.  6.  The  structure  of  II  Thessalonians.  7. 
The  evidence  that  it  was  written  by  Paul.    8.  Its  important  teachings. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Contemporary  Greek  letters. 
Deissmann,  Light  from  the  Ancient  East,  107-400.  2.  Evidence  for 
and  against  the  authenticity  of  II  Thessalonians.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to 
N.  T.,  81,  82;  Bacon,  St.  Paul,  243-251.  3.  The  situation  and  history 
of  Thessalonica.     En.  Bib.,  IV,  5046-8;  Hastings,  D.  B.,  IV,  749, 750. 

§CLVI.  Paul's  Work  at  Athens  and  Corinth.  General 
Questions:  1.  Draw  a  general  plan  indicating  the  situation  of  the 
important  public  buildings  at  Athens  when  Paul  visited  it.  2.  De- 
scribe its  intellectual  and  religious  life  and  Paul's  attitude  toward  it. 
3.  Express  in  the  form  of  a  paraphrase  the  leading  ideas  in  his  ad- 
dress to  the  Athenian  crowd.  4.  The  way  in  which  it  was  received. 
5.  In  what  did  Paul's  skill  as  an  orator  consist?  6.  What  peculiar 
and  difficult  problems  confronted  Paul  at  Corinth?  7.  What  new 
methods  did  he  there  employ?  8.  In  what  respects  was  his  work  at 
Corinth  successful? 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Philosophical  schools  in 
Athens  in  Paul's  day.  Ramsay,  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,  238-244;  Zeller, 
The  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Skeptics;  Windelband,  Hist,  of  Ancient 
Philosophy;  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers,  II,  III.  2.  The  geographical 
and  commercial  importance  of  Corinth.  Dobschiitz,  Life  in  the  Primi- 
tive Church,  11-13;  Frazer,  Pausanias,  II,  1,  2;  En.  Bib.,  I,  897-9. 

§  CLVII.  Paul 's  Correspondence  with  the  Corinthian  Church. 
General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
ditions in  Corinth  when  Paul  visited  it.  2.  The  peculiar  problems  in 
the  Christian  church  at  Corinth.  3.  The  contents  of  Paul's  first  letter 
to  the  Corinthian  Christians.  4.  The  structure  and  contents  of  his 
second  letter:  I  Corinthians.  5.  Paul's  method  of  dealing  with  factions 
in  the  Christian  church.  6.  His  teachings  regarding  personal  im- 
morality. 7.  The  occasion  and  contents  of  his  third  letter  to  the 
Corinthians.    8.  The  structure  and  leading  ideas  of  his  fourth  letter. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Paul's  teachings  regarding 
the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus.  Deissmann,  St.  Paul,  173-9; 
Weinel,  St.  Paul,  300-312.     2.  The  later  history  of  the  Corinthian 

308 


APPENDIX 

church  reflected  in  /  Clement.  Dobschiitz,  Life  in  the  Primitive  Churchy 
211-7;  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  I,  1-21. 

§CLVIII.  Paul's  Principles  of  Christian  Living.  General 
Questions:  1.  Formulate  in  your  own  words  Paul's  statement  of  a 
Christian's  duty  in  case  a  dispute  arises  with  a  fellow  Christian. 

2.  Describe  his  conception  of  the  moral  responsibilities  of  those  who 
enjoyed  Christian  liberty.  3.  Compare  his  teachings  and  those  of 
Jesus  regarding  marriage  and  divorce.  4.  Describe  his  practical  inter- 
pretation of  Jesus'  law  of  love.  5.  His  teachings  regarding  the  "Body 
of  Christ."  6.  The  setting  of  his  hymn  to  love  in  I  Corinthians  13. 
7.  Express  in  the  form  of  a  paraphrase  the  leading  ideas  in  this  hymn. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  A  comparison  of  the  Roman 
and  Christian  attitude  toward  divorce.  Westermarck,  Hist,  of  Human 
Marriage;  Howard,  Hist,  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  I.  2.  The 
literary  charm  of  Paul's  hymn  in  praise  of  love.  Weinel,  St.  Paul, 
137;  Von  Norden,  Antik.  Kunstprosa,  II,  506. 

§CLIX.  Paul's  Ministry  at  Ephesus.  General  Questions: 
1.  Trace  on  the  map  Paul's  probable  itinerary  from  Ephesus  to  An- 
tioch.  2.  Describe  the  situation  of  Ephesus.  3.  Its  political  and  re- 
ligious importance.  4.  Its  intellectual  life  in  Paul's  day.  5.  The 
ways  in  which  Paul  adapted  his  methods  to  local  conditions.  6.  The 
pagan  opposition  which  he  aroused.  7.  The  limitations  and  the  re- 
sults of  his  work  at  Ephesus. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  history  of  Ephesus  and 
the  results  of  recent  excavation.  En.  Bib.,  II,  1302-5;  Hastings, 
D.  B.,  I,  720-4;  Wood,  Discoveries  at  Ephesus.  2.  The  temple  of 
Artemis.    Hastings,  D.  B.,  I,  605,  606,  724;  En.  Bib.,  I,  1098-1100. 

§CLX.  Paul's  Interpretation  of  Jesus'  Saving  Work.  Gen- 
eral Questions:  1.  Describe  the  reasons  which  led  Paul  to  write  his 
epistle  to  the  Romans.     2.  Its  structure  and  important  divisions. 

3.  The  practical  value  and  limitations  of  the  Jewish  legal  system. 

4.  What  Jesus  and  his  teaching  had  done  for  Paul.  5.  The  inherited 
ideas  which  shaped  Paul's  conception  of  Jesus.  6.  The  different  figures 
which  he  employed  to  describe  Jesus'  saving  work,  and  their  meaning. 
7.  The  way  in  which  Jesus,  according  to  Paul,  saves  men. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  Christian  church  at 
Rome.  McGiffert,  Apostolic  Age,  325,  328,  588-593;  Dobschiitz,  Life 
in  the  Primitive  Church,  121-3,  203,  204.  2.  Paul's  theology.  Deiss- 
mann,  St.  Paul,  143-192;  Ropes,  Apostolic  Age,  134-168;  Wrede,  Paul, 
84-119;  Weinel,  St.  Paul,  286-352. 

309 


APPENDIX 

§  CLXI.  Paul's  Social  Teachings.  General  Questions: 
1.  Describe  Paul's  interest  in  ethical  and  social  questions.  2.  The 
evidence  that  he  had  a  wide  and  first-hand  knowledge  of  many  of 
Jesus'  social  teachings.  3.  Paul's  statement  of  Jesus'  principle  of  self- 
sacrifice.  4.  The  Christian's  duty  to  his  fellow  Christians.  5.  To 
civil  authorities  and  organized  society.  6.  Paul's  principle  of  tolera- 
tion. 7.  The  influence  of  his  belief  in  the  speedy  second  coming  of 
Jesus  upon  his  social  teaching  and  activity.  8.  Compare  Jesus'  teach- 
ings regarding  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  Paul's  regarding  the  "Body 
of  Christ." 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Social  life  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. Fowler,  Social  Life  at  Rome  in  the  Age  of  Cicero;  Tucker,  Life 
in  the  Roman  World  of  Nero  and  St.  Paul.  2.  The  social  life  of  the 
early  Christian  churches.  Harnack,  Expansion  of  Christianity,  I, 
181-249.  3.  Royce's  interpretation  of  Paul's  social  teachings,  The 
Problem  of  Christianity,  I,  II. 

§  CLXII.  Paul's  Last  Journey  to  Jerusalem.  General  Ques- 
tions: 1.  Describe  the  incidents  of  Paul's  journey  to  Jerusalem.  2.  The 
reasons  that  led  him  to  revisit  the  home  of  Judaism.  3.  The  extent 
to  which  his  mission  to  the  Jerusalem  church  appears  to  have  been 
successful.  4.  The  reasons  why  the  Jews  hated  him.  5.  The  basis 
and  nature  of  their  attack.    6.  Was  Paul's  visit  to  Jerusalem  a  mistake  ? 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Paul's  skill  and  methods  as 
an  organizer.  Wrede,  Paul,  56-62;  Weinel,  St.  Paul,  200-217.  2.  The 
finances  of  the  early  Christian  churches.  Dobschiitz,  Life  in  the  Primi- 
tive Church,  58,  59;  Harnack,  Expansion  of  Christianity,  I,  227-230. 

§CLXIII.    The  Ambassador  in  Bonds.     General  Questions: 

1.  Describe  the  reasons  why  Felix  kept  Paul  in  prison  for  two  years. 

2.  The  charge  of  Tertullus,  and  Paul's  defense  before  Felix.  3.  The 
intellectual  atmosphere  of  Csesarea.  4.  The  evidence  regarding  the 
date  of  the  proconsulship  of  Festus.  5.  Paul's  reasons  for  appealing  to 
Caesar.  6.  Trace  on  a  map  Paul's  journey  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome. 
7.  The  story  of  his  shipwreck.    8.  His  life  as  a  prisoner  at  Rome. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  personal  history  of 
Felix.  En.  Bib.,  II,  1516,  1517;  Schiirer,  Hist,  of  the  Jew.  People, 
Div.  I,  II,  174-183.  2.  Roman  ships  and  methods  of  sailing.  En. 
Bib.,  IV,  4480-4;  Smith,  Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul;  Torr,  An- 
cient Ships. 

§  CLXIV.  The  Last  Letters  of  the  Aged  Prisoner.  General 
Questions:   1.  Describe  the  letters  which  Paul  wrote  during  his  im- 

310 


APPENDIX 

prisonment  at  Rome.  2.  His  aim  in  writing  to  Philemon  and  the  way 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  accomplish  it.  3.  The  occasion  of  his  letter 
to  the  Colossians.  4.  The  teachings  which  it  presents.  5.  The  evi- 
dence that  the  so-called  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written  by  Paul. 
6.  Its  leading  ideas.     7.  The  aim  of  Paul's  letter  to  the  Philippians. 

8.  The  light  which  it  throws  upon  Paul's  condition  at  the  time. 

9.  Paul's  leading  contributions  to  the  beliefs,  the  organization,  and  the 
social  ideals  of  Christianity. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Origin  and  distinctive  be- 
liefs of  Gnosticism.  Dobschutz,  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church,  251-276; 
En.  Bib.,  II,  1738-42;  Mansel,  Gnostic  Heresies.  2.  Polycarp's  Epis- 
tle to  the  Philippians.  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  I,  31-36.  3.  Paul's  contri- 
butions to  the  faith  of  Christianity.    Wrede,  Paul,  155-182. 


CHRISTIANITY  DURING  THE  SECOND  HALF  OF  THE 
FIRST  CENTURY 

§  CLXV.    The  Message  of  Hope  and  Inspiration  in  I  Peter. 

General  Questions:  1.  What  is  known  regarding  Peter's  later 
activity  ?  2.  What  evidence  is  there  that  he  died  a  martyr  at  Rome  ? 
3.  Describe  the  extension  of  Christianity  throughout  the  Roman 
world  during  the  first  century.  4.  How  far  did  it  penetrate  the  im- 
perial household  ?  5.  What  does  Pliny  state  regarding  the  character 
of  the  Christians  in  Bithynia?  6.  Describe  Domitian's  persecutions 
of  the  Christians.  7.  The  aim  of  I  Peter.  8.  Its  probable  authorship 
and  date.    9.  Its  leading  ideas. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  Domitian's  policy  toward 
his  subjects.  Ayer,  Source  Book  for  Ancient  Church  History,  11,  12; 
Ramsay,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire.  2.  The  thought  and  au- 
thorship of  II  Peter.  Moffatt,  Introd.  to  N.  T.,  359-371;  Julicher, 
Introd.  to  N.  T.,  232-241. 

§  CLXVI.  The  Early  Christian  Sermon  in  Hebrews.  General 
Questions:  1.  Describe  the  evidence  that  the  so-called  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  was  originally  uttered  as  a  sermon.  2.  The  character 
and  point  of  view  of  its  author.  3.  The  class  to  which  it  was  ad- 
dressed. 4.  The  temptations  which  confronted  them.  5.  The  aim  of 
the  author  of  Hebrews.  6.  The  way  in  which  he  develops  his  theme. 
7.  The  literary  charm  of  Hebrews.  8.  Its  contribution  to  the  faith 
of  Christianity. 

311 


APPENDIX 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  characteristics  of  Alex- 
andrian life  and  philosophy.  Encyc.  Brit  I,  573-5;  Kingsley,  Alex- 
andria and  Her  Schools;  Zeller,  History  of  Philosophy;  Knaack, 
Alexandrische  Litteratur.  2.  A  comparison  of  Paul's  interpretation  of 
the  character  and  work  of  Jesus  with  that  of  the  author  of  Hebrews. 

§  CLXVII.  The  Visions  of  the  Ultimate  Victory  of  Christian- 
ity in  the  Book  of  Revelation.  General  Questions:  1.  Describe 
the  aims  of  the  author  of  the  book  of  Revelation.  2.  The  practical 
problems  with  which  the  author  is  dealing.  3.  The  class  of  literature 
to  which  it  belongs.  4.  Point  of  view  and  date  at  which  it  was  written. 
5.  Its  use  of  figures  drawn  from  early  apocalyptic  writings.  6.  The 
meaning  of  its  dramatic  pictures.  7.  The  social  significance  of  its 
description  of  the  new  Jerusalem. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  apocalypse  contained 
in  IV  Ezra.  Charles,  The  Apocryphal  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the  0.  T., 
542-624.  2.  Christian  beliefs  regarding  the  end  of  the  world.  Clemen, 
Primitive  Christianity  and  its  Non-Jewish  Sources,  117-174. 

§  CLXVIII.  The  Christian  Wisdom  of  the  Epistle  of  James. 
General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  literary  peculiarities  of  the 
epistle  of  James.  2.  The  motives  which  influenced  its  author  to 
write.  3.  The  history  of  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus.  4.  The  prob- 
able date  of  the  epistle  of  James.  5.  The  point  of  view  and  char- 
acter of  its  author.  6.  Its  distinctive  teachings.  7.  Its  emphasis  on 
democracy.    8.    Its  practical  value. 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  History  of  the  Palestinian 
Christian  communities.  Harnack,  Expansion  of  Christianity,  II,  247- 
276.  2.  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Ayer,  Source  Book  for 
Ancient  Church  History,  37-41;  Hastings,  D.  B.,  Extra  Vol.,  438-451. 
§  CLXIX.  The  Rule  of  Love  in  the  Early  Christian  Church. 
General  Questions:  1.  Describe  the  aim  of  the  author  of  I  John. 
2.  Its  teaching  regarding  love.  3.  Its  probable  author  and  date. 
4.  The  evidence  that  I  John  and  the  Fourth  Gospel  come  from  the 
same  ultimate  source.  5.  The  personality  revealed  in  the  Johannine 
writings.  6.  Evidences  that  the  principles  of  love  prevailed  in  the 
early  Christian  communities.  7.  The  organization  and  institutions 
of  the  early  churches.    8.  What  is  Christianity  ? 

Subjects  for  Special  Research:  1.  The  picture  of  early  Chris- 
tian life  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas.  Dobschiitz,  Life  in  the  Primitive 
Church,  309-362.  2.  The  treatment  of  the  sick  and  needy  in  the  early 
church.    Dobschiitz,  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church,  368-370;  Harnack, 

312 


APPENDIX 

Expansion  of  Christianity,  I,  131-151,  230-236;  Ulhorn,  Christian 
Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church.  3.  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  early  church.  Scott,  Beginnings  of  the  Church,  162-223;  Clemen, 
Primitive  Christianity  and  its  Non-Jewish  Sources,  212-266;  Heit- 
muller,  Taufe  una1  Abendmahl  im  Urchristentum. 


313 


The  Historical  Bible 

By 
Charles  Foster  Kent,  Ph.D. 

6  volumes.      12mo.      Cloth.      Each    $1.00  net 

THE  Historical  Bible  is  the  practical  result  of  twenty 
years'  experience  with  college,  seminary  and  general  Bible 
classes.  Under  the  direction  of  experienced  teachers  it 
will  be  possible  for  college  classes  to  cover  the  entire  field  of 
biblical  and  cognate  history  in  two  or  three  years.  For  the  use 
of  these  classes  each  volume  is  provided  with  general  questions 
which  aim  to  focus  the  attention  while  reading  on  the  im- 
portant facts  contained  in  each  section.  To  these  are  added 
subjects  for  special  investigation,  with  detailed  references  to 
select  authorities,  so  as  to  guide  the  student  into  the  broader 
fields  of  individual  research. 

The  Historical  Bible  is  also  planned  and  has  already  been 
tested  as  a  text-book  for  senior  and  adult  Bible  classes  in  the 
Sunday-school,  as  a  manual  for  Sunday-school  teachers'  training 
classes,  and  as  a  basis  of  study  for  general  readers  who  desire  to 
gain  from  a  modern  point  of  view  a  working  systematic  knowl- 
edge of  the  entire  biblical  field. 

Arrangement  of  Volumes: 

I.  The  Heroes  and  Crises  of  Early  Hebrew  History. 

From  the  Beginnings  of  Human  History  to  the  Death  of  Moses. 

II.  The  Founders  and  Rulers  of  United  Israel. 

From  the  Death  of  Moses  to  the  Division  of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom. 

III.  The  Kings  and  Prophets  of  Israel  and  Judah. 

From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom  to  the  Babylonian  Exile. 

IV.  The  Leaders  and  Teachers  of  Post=Exilic  Judaism. 

From  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Christian  Era. 

V.  The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Jesus. 

In  the  Light  of  the  Earliest  Records. 

VI.  The  Work  and  Teachings  of  the  Apostles. 

From  the  Death  of  Jesus  to  the  End  of  the  First  Century. 


THE  HISTORICAL  BIBLE 

"The  books  seem  to  me  to  have  great  value.  They  ought  to  be  widely 
used  in  schools  and  adult  classes  in  the  Bible  schools.  Not  less  is  their 
value  for  private  reading.  The  old  Bibles  read  at  family  prayers  often 
contained  'reflections/  which  were  read  with  the  reading  of  the  Bible. 
A  reading  through  of  these  volumes  would  give  one  to-day  the  point  of 
view  of  modern  Biblical  scholarship,  as  those  Bibles  reflected  the  point  of 
view  of  ancient  scholarship.  J  hope  they  will  have  a  wide  use,  and  be  a 
means  of  making  the  Bible  once  more  take  its  place  among  the  forces  of 
actual  life,  in  the  most  practical  way.  Such  a  set  of  books  is  a  boon  to 
the  religious  life  of  the  country." — Prof.  F.  Irving  Wood,  Smith  College, 
Northampton,  Mass. 

"I  have  thoroughly  examined  'Heroes  and  Crises  of  Early  Hebrew 
History'  and  'Founders  and  Rulers  of  United  Israel/  and  am  more  than 
pleased  with  them." — Rev.  C.  A.  Quinn,  Wexford,  Mich. 

"I  am  a  subscriber  to  'The  Historical  Bible'  and  believe  you  have 
issued  the  very  help  most  needed  at  the  present  stage  of  intelligent  Bible 
study.  I  hope  to  use  it  in  a  course  in  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  of  our  city." — 
Rev.  B.  A.  Williams,  Pastor  First  Congregational  Church,  Knoxville, 
Tenn. 

"I  consider  the  set  a  very  practical  series  of  hand-books  for  senior 
Bible  classes,  and  should  be  willing  to  recommend  their  use  as  text-books 
for  such  a  class  to  any." — Rev.  George  E.  Dorman,  Ogonquit,  Me. 

"I  have  read  with  deep  interest  and  profit  the  two  volumes  of  'The 
Historical  Bible'  recently  purchased,  and  can  say  that  they  set  forth  in 
a  splendid,  plain  way  those  things  now  little  known,  but  ought  to  be 
known,  by  the  people  generally." — Rev.  L.  R.  Daniels,  Houlton,  Me. 

"I  have  received  the  First  and  Second  Volumes  of  'The  Historical 
Bible/  and  after  reading  them,  I  feel  under  such  obligation  to  you  for 
inducing  me  to  buy  them  that  I  must  express  my  thanks  to  you.  They 
are  just  fine,  so  fine  that  no  one  who  attempts  to  preach  the  Gospel  can 
afford  to  be  without  them  in  his  library.  They  will  fill  a  long-felt  want." 
—Rev.  B.  H.  Cross,  Harlin,  W.  Va. 

"In  my  opinion  this  is  one  of  the  best  text-books  for  advanced  Sunday- 
school  work  that  I  have  seen."— Rev.  W.  Hamilton  Benham,  Buffalo, 
N.Y. 


THE  HISTORICAL  BIBLE 

"I  am  using  'The  Historical  Bible*  and  my  students  are  much  pleased 
with  it.  The  lessons  drawn  from  the  narratives  are  excellent  and  meet 
a  great  need." — Miss  Martha  E.  Laurence,  Professor  in  Lake  Erie 
College,  Painesville,  O. 

"I  am  using  'The  Historical  Bible'  in  my  young  people's  meeting  on 
Sunday  evenings  and  also  on  Wednesday  evening  in  the  church  prayer 
meeting,  which  has  been  transformed  into  a  church  Bible  study  evening. 
The  interest  is  great.  I  consider  'The  Historical  Bible'  the  finest  out- 
line* for  historical  Bible  study  that  I  know.  The  work  is  scientifically  and 
pedagogically  gotten  out.  The  tone  and  spirit  in  which  it  is  written  is 
reverent,  convincing  and  admirable.  I  know  of  nothing  which  serves 
so  well  for  modern,  historical,  intelligible  Bible  study  as  'The  Historical 
Bible.'"— Rev.  T.  W.  Young,  Pastor  North  Baptist  Church,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

"I  am  reading  with  great  interest  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  'The 
Historical  Bible,' by  Kent.  It  is  a  timely  and  greatly  needed  work.  If  it 
does  not  give  us  a  new  Bible,  it  furnishes  us  with  a  new  vision  of  God's 
Book,  vastly  in  advance  of  any  manuals  hitherto  presented.  What  the 
world  and  the  Church  needs  to  meet  the  situation  of  the  hour  is  a  sane, 
scientific,  and  historical  understanding  of  the  Bible,  as  a  book.  Our  old 
systems  have  not  done  this,  whatever  else  they  have  done." — Rev.  I. 
Newton  Stanger,  D.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

"As  soon  as  I  received  the  copies  of  Kent's  new  'Historical  Bible/  I 
was  impressed  by  their  value  as  text-books  for  teachers'  training  courses, 
especially,  and  for  general  use  by  Bible  students.  I  can  hardly  wait  till 
I  find  time  to  complete  the  study  which  I  have  already  begun.  I  am 
highly  pleased  with  them  and  you  cannot  get  the  rest  of  the  set  out  of 
the  press  too  soon." — Rev.  L.  D.  Woodruff,  Pastor  East  Madison 
Ave.  Congregational  Church,  Cleveland,  O. 

"The  first  two  volumes  of  'The  Historical  Bible'  give  assurance  that 
we  are  to  be  furnished  with  a  most  valuable  work.  Such  a  work  has  long 
been  needed  by  students  who  are  modern  in  their  methods.  We  are 
using  it  as  a  text-book  in  one  of  our  Sunday-school  classes,  and  with 
splendid  results." — Rev.  James  H.  Franklin,  Pastor  First  Baptist 
Church,  Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 

"It  is  a  work  of  careful  scholarship,  and  an  excellent  example  of  con- 
structive criticism." — The  Christian  Intelligencer. 


THE   HISTORICAL  BIBLE 

"This  series  is  evidently  the  best  suited  of  all  of  Professor  Kent's 
books  to  the  needs  of  young  people  and  older  people  unfamiliar  with  the 
methods  and  results  of  modern  Bible  study." — Biblical  World. 

"The  author  has  undertaken  to  put  in  popular,  practical  form  the 
really  vital  parts  of  the  Bible  arranged  in  chronological  order,  inter- 
preting its  essential  teachings  into  the  thought  and  language  of  the 
present.  This  is  a  worthy  endeavor  for  the  reason  that  the  results  of 
modern  Biblical  discovery  have,  as  a  rule,  been  inaccessible  to  the  average 
reader." — Baltimore  Methodist. 

"This  book  incorporates  the  latest  results  of  modern  scholarship,  and 
is  well  fitted  for  use  in  classes,  but  no  less  for  the  general  reader  who  de- 
sires to  gain  from  the  modern  point  of  view  a  systematic  knowledge  of  the 
history,  literature  and  teachings  of  the  Bible." — Christian  Work  and 
Evangelist. 

"Those  who  desire  to  study  the  constructive  conclusions  of  the  critical 
Biblical  scholarship  will  find  in  these  volumes  what  they  are  looking  for." 
— Lutheran  Observer. 

"  For  help  in  preparation  of  Sunday-school  lessons,  for  supplementary 
work  in  Sunday-school  classes,  for  training  classes  in  the  Sunday-school, 
or  for  use  by  any  student  of  the  Bible,  this  work  must  prove  a  valuable 
and  suggestive  aid." — The  Universalist  Leader. 

"The  question  has  been  asked  by  many,  felt  though  unuttered  by 
many  more,  What,  if  any  value,  remains  of  the  Old  Testament  if  the 
conclusions  put  forward  by  modern  criticism  be  accepted?  The  two 
volumes  before  us  answer  that  question — for  the  portion  of  the  Scrip- 
tures which  they  cover.  Is  the  answer  surprising?  For  the  religious 
teaching  which  we  have  always  understood  to  be  the  heart  of  it  all  is  still 
here.  The  stories  of  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  the  Flood,  seem  to  teach 
Professor  Kent  just  what  they  teach  any  one  else.  The  reader  unversed 
in  the  results,  still  less  in  the  methods,  of  modern  criticism,  will  be 
charmed  with  these  volumes.  He  will  be  charmed,  at  least,  with  the 
vivid  clearness  which  is  often  imparted  to  the  Scripture  text  by  some 
fortunate  phrase  of  the  translator;  and  if  he  is  pleased  and  delighted 
also  with  the  new  view  he  gets  of  the  steady  progress  of  divine  revelation 
and  the  wonderful  grace  and  condescension  of  God,  who  shall  blame 
him  ?  Those  who  accept  the  conclusions  of  criticism  will  be  both  pleased 
and  helped  by  it,  those  who  reject  those  conclusions  intelligently  must 
reckon  with  it." — The  Cumberland  Presbyterian. 


HSSII 


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BS491  .K37  v.6 
The  historical  Bible. 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


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